// ,  isr,  'ojf 


r" 

PRINCETON,  N.  J.                          *^ 

Purchasec 

by  the 

Hamill   Missionary  Fund, 

Division 
Section  ■■ 

KOREA 


KOREA 


ANGUS  HAMILTON 


WITH    MAP   AND    ILLUSTRATIONS 


NEW    YORK 
CHARLES    SCRIBNER'S    SONS 

1904 


All  rights  reserved 


TROW  DIRECTORY 

PRINTINQ  AND  BOOKBINDINU  COMPANY 

N6W  YORK 


TO 

MY    MOTHER 


CONTENTS 


INTRODUCTION 
The  Position  of  Russia  in  Manchuria — Comparative  Estimate 
of  Naval  and  Military  Resources  of  Russia,  Japan,  and 
Korea Pp.  xv-xliii 

CHAPTER    I 
Off  the   coast — Lack   of  survey   intelHgence — Island   -flora — 
Forgotten   voyagers — Superstitions   and   beliefs — Outline 
of  history Pp.  1-12 

CHAPTER    II 

Physical  peculiarities — Direction  of  advancement — Indica- 
tions of  reform  and  prosperity — Chemulpo — Population — 
Settlement — Trade Pp.  13-22 

CHAPTER    III 
Move  to  the  capital — A  city  of  peace — Results  of  foreign  in- 
fluence— In     the      beginning — Education — Shops — Cos- 
tume— Origin — Posts  and  telegraphs — Methods  of  clean- 
liness      Pp.  23-40 

CHAPTER    IV 

The     heart     of     the    capital— Domestic    economy — Female 

slavery — Standards  of  morality — A  dress  rehearsal 

Pp-  41-53 
vii 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER   V 
The  Court  of  Korea — The  Emperor  and  his  Chancellor — The 
Empress  and  some  Palace  factions        .         .     Pp.  54-64 

CHAPTER   VI 

The  passing  of  the  Emperor— An  Imperial  pageant    Pp.  65-73 

CHAPTER    VII 

Sketch  of  Mr.  McLeavy  Brown — The  Question  of  the  Cus- 
toms— The  suggested  Loan     ....     Pp.  74-87 

CHAPTER    VIII 
Foreign    action    in    Korea — Exhausted    Exchequer — Taxes — 
Budgets — Debased    currency — The    Dai    Ichi    Ginko — 
Dishonest  officials        .         .         .         .  Pp.  88-102 

CHAPTER    IX 
Education — Arts    and    graces — Penal    code — Marriage    and 
divorce — The  rights  of  concubines — Position  of  children — 
Government Pp.  103-111 

CHAPTER    X 
Farmers — Farming  and  farm  animals — Domestic  industries — 
Products — Quality  and  character  of  food-stufFs 

Pp.  112-121 

CHAPTER    XI 

Japan    in    Korea — Historical    associations — In   Old    Fusan — 
Political  and  economic  interests — Abuse  of  paramountcy 

Pp.  122-131 
CHAPTER    XII 
The   commercial    prospects   of  Korea — Openings   to   trade- 
Requirements  of  markets — Lack  of  British  enterprise 

Pp.  132-142 
viii 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER   XIII 
British,  American,  Japanese,  French,  German,  and  Belgian 
interests — Railways  and  mining  fictions — Tabled  counter- 
feited Imports Pp.  143-167 

CHAPTER   XIV 
Some  account  of  the  treaty  ports;  Won-san,  Fusan,  Mok-po — 
Character  of  export  and  import  trade — Local  industries 

Pp.  168-180 
CHAPTER   XV 
Treaty      ports       {continued) — Wi-ju — Syon-chyon-po — Chin- 
am-po — Pyong-yang — Kun-san — Syong-chin  Pp.  181-191 

CHAPTER   XVI 

Russian  interest — Russia  and  Japan — Ma-san-po — Ching- 
kai-wan — Yong-an-po         ....     Pp.  192-207 

CHAPTER   XVII 

By  the  wayside — A  journey  inland  to  Tong-ko-kai — Inland 
beauties Pp.  208-215 

CHAPTER   XVIII 

The  German  mines — Mineralogy  and  methods  of  mining — 
A  bear  hunt — With  gun  and  rifle      .         .     Pp.  216-225 

CHAPTER    XIX 

The  monks  and  monasteries  of  the  Diamond  Mountains — The 
Temple  of  Eternal  Rest — The  Temple  of  the  Tree  of 
Buddha— Buddhism  .         .         .         .Pp.  226-239 

CHAPTER    XX 

The    abomination    of   desolation — Across    Korea — The    east 
coast — Fishing  and  filth      ....     Pp.  240-250 
ix 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  XXI 

Drought — Starvation — Inland  disturbances — Rainfall  and  dis- 
ease   Pp.  251-258 

CHAPTER   XXII 
The  missionary  question — Ethics  of  Christianity — Cant  and 
commerce — The  necessity  for  restraint       .     Pp.  259-267 

CHAPTER   XXIII 
Inland    journeying — Ponies,  servants,  interpreters,  food  and 
accommodation — What  to  take  and  hov^  to  take  it — Up 
the  Han  River,  frolic  and  leisure        .         .     Pp.  268-281 

CHAPTER   XXIV 

Kang-v^ha,  brief  history  of  the  island — A  monastic  retreat,  an 
ideal  rest — Nocturnal  visitors — Midnight  masses — Return 
to  the  capital — Preparations  for  a  great  journey — Riots 
and  confusion Pp.  282-298 

APPENDIX   I 
Schedule  of  train  service P.  299 

APPENDIX   II 
Return  of  all  shipping  entered  at  the  open  ports  of  Korea 
during  the  year   1902     .....     Pp.  300 

APPENDIX    III 

Return  of  principal  articles  of  export  to  foreign  countries  from 

the  open  ports  of  Korea  during  the  years  1901-1902 

APPENDIX    IV 

Return  of  principal  articles  of  imports  to  foreign  countries 
during  the  years  1901-1902     ....         P.  304 

X 


CONTENTS 

APPENDIX  V 
Coast  trade  between  treaty-ports  in  native  produce  (net)  P.  305 


APPENDIX   VI 
Customs  revenue     .... 


.       P.  305 


APPENDIX   VII 
Gold  export  to  foreign  countries     ....         P.  3^^  % 

APPENDIX   VIII 
Table  of  minerals P- 3^7 


XI 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


Ceiling,  Imperial  Palace,  Seoul     . 
Tablet  in  Seoul        .... 

Native   dress  .... 

She  may  visit  her  friends 

Imperial  Tablet-House,  Seoul 

On   the   Yalu   River 

A  Fair  Magician     .... 

Beyond   the   Amur 

Russian  post  on  the  Korean  Frontier 


Cover 
Frontispiece 

FACING    PAGE 

36 
"48 

n 

196 
250 

280 

296 


INTRODUCTION 

NOTHING  Is  more  natural  than  the  circum- 
stance that  war  should  be  the  outcome  of 
the  existing  crisis;  yet,  equally,  nothing  is  less  cer- 
tain. If  the  area  of  hostilities  were  not  con- 
fined to  the  Far  East,  and  the  Power  confronting 
Japan  were  any  other  than  Russia,  the  outbreak  of 
war  might  be  predicted  positively.  But  with  Rus- 
sia, consideration  of  the  strategic  qualities  of  her 
position  in  Manchuria  must  exercise  a  paramount  in- 
fluence upon  her  movements.  To  those  who  are  not 
close  students  of  military  history,  as  well  as  to  those 
who  do  not  possess  an  extensive  knowledge  of  the  situa- 
tion, the  position  in  which  Russia  is  placed  equally 
affords  the  keenest  interest.  Certainly  in  the  annals  of 
military  history,  excluding  the  march  of  Napoleon  upon 
Moscow,  there  is  no  war  which  may  be  said  to  have 
developed  a  parallel  to  the  task  which  besets  Russia 
In  Manchuria  and  Korea.  Her  position  at  sea,  more- 
over, is  no  better  than  that  which  she  holds  on  land. 
Upon  land,  a  single  line  of  railway  traversing  the  heart 
of  an  enemy's  country  terminates  at  Port  Arthur.  At 
sea,  Vladivostock  is  cut  off  by  reason  of  Its  position, 
while  It  is  Inaccessible  on  account  of  its  climate.    These 

XV 


KOREA 

points,  Port  Arthur  and  Vladlvostock,  define  the  ex- 
tremities of  the  strategic  position  which  Russia  holds  in 
Manchuria.  Excluding  Vladivostock  at  this  moment 
from  any  especial  consideration,  Port  Arthur  is  left  for 
the  opening  moves  of  this  campaign.  Therefore,  Port 
Arthur,  with  a  single  line  of  communications  in  its  rear, 
becomes  the  pivot  of  the  operations. 

The  aspect  of  Port  Arthur  from  the  sea  is  uninviting. 
Rugged  hills,  offshoots  from  the  range  of  mountains 
which  divides  the  Liao-tung  peninsula,  cluster  round 
the  bay,  and  encroaching  upon  the  foreshore  and  bear- 
ing neither  trees  nor  vegetation,  impart  to  the  surround- 
ings a  desolate  and  even  wild  appearance.  Within  the 
headlands  of  the  harbour,  conforming  with  the  inden- 
tations of  the  coast,  there  are  several  bays  shallow  and 
unprofitable,  but  which  in  time  may  become  an  im- 
portant adjunct  to  the  small  area  of  deep  water  which 
the  harbour  now  possesses.  Dredging  operations  have 
been  undertaken,  but  there  is  so  much  to  be  done  that 
many  years  must  pass  before  Port  Arthur  receives  any 
material  addition  to  its  very  restricted  accommodation. 
The  mud,  brought  down  by  the  streams  which  empty 
into  the  harbour,  has  already  affected  the  deep-water 
area,  and  since  the  harbour  was  constructed  these 
deposits  have  encroached  very  considerably  upon  the 
depth  off  shore.  At  low  water  steamers,  which  lie  up 
within  sixty  feet  of  the  wharf,  rest  upon  mud  in  little 
more  than  a  fathom  of  water,  and  at  the  same  time  the 
space  is  so  small  that  it  is  impossible  for  a  dozen  ves- 

xvi 


INTRODUCTION 

sels  to  anchor  In  the  harbour  with  any  comfort.    Steam^ 
ers,  if  any  larger  in  size  than  the  small  coasting-boats 
which  call  at  Port  Arthur  from  China  and  Japan,  must 
anchor  off  the  entrance,  unloading  and  re-charging  from 
junks  or  tenders.    In  relation  to  the  requirements  of  the 
squadron    Port   Arthur   is    not   nearly    large    enough. 
When  cruisers  are  taking  in  stores  battleships  remain 
outside,    an    arrangement   which   is   manifestly   incon- 
venient in  a  period  of  emergency.     It  was  for  this  rea- 
son that  the  authorities  constructed  at  Dalny — a  few 
miles  from  the  fortress  and  within  Pa-tien-wan  Bay — 
a    new    town,    together   with    commercial    docks    and 
wharves,  in  order  that  Port  Arthur  might  be  devoted 
more  particularly  to  the  needs  of  the  navy. 

Port  Arthur  is  happy  in  the  possession  of  all  those 
objects  which,  to  a  naval  base,  are  component  parts  of 
its  success.     The  dry  dock,  somewhat  weak  and  unsub- 
stantial, is  385  feet  in  length,  34  feet  in  depth,  and  80 
feet  broad,  while  the  naval  basin  is  equal  in  surface 
space  to  the  total  available  steamer  anchorage  in  the 
harbour  proper.    When  the  dredging  works  in  the  har- 
bour bays  have  been  completed  it  is  hoped  that  a  mean 
depth  of  four  fathoms  will  have  been  obtained.    This 
systematic  deepening  of  the  harbour  will  give  to  the 
fleet  a  surface  anchorage  considerably  in  excess  of  one 
square  mile,  but  until  the  work  has  been  executed  the 
value  of  Port  Arthur  as  a  satisfactory  naval  base  is  in- 
finitely less  than  the  prestige  which  it  enjoys  as  an  im- 
pregnable position. 

xvli 


KOREA 

Port  Arthur  possesses  a  small  parade-ground,  rifle- 
range,  and  artillery  practice-ground,  torpedo-station 
and  training  reservation,  which  will  be  enlarged  when 
the  bays  are  opened  out.  There  is  a  flash-light  station 
and  various  schools  of  instruction — torpedo,  gunnery, 
telegraphy — while  the  arsenals  and  workshops  which 
are  built  around  the  naval  basin  and  within  the  navy 
yards  are  very  thoroughly  equipped.  These  effects, 
however,  were  mainly  taken  over  by  Russia  when  she 
seized  Port  Arthur;  their  existence  at  the  present  mo- 
ment tends  to  show  how  impossible  It  is  to  under-estl- 
mate  the  advantages  which  Russia  derives  from  the 
possession  of  this  port,  and  how  far-reaching  are  the 
consequences  of  the  monstrous  blunder  which  Lord 
Salisbury  committed  when  he  acquiesced  in  its  usur- 
pation. 

Apart  from  the  defences  Russia,  hitherto,  has  not 
added  much  to  Port  Arthur;  for  the  main  part  the 
troops  have  been  quartered  In  the  old  Chinese  houses 
or  in  the  former  barracks  of  the  Chinese  troops,  affairs 
having  been  somewhat  neglected  in  view  of  the  prior 
claim  which  the  defences  held.  Now,  however,  fine 
barracks  are  in  course  of  construction,  and,  if  there  is 
no  war,  It  is  anticipated  that  ample  accommodation  will 
be  ready  soon  upon  the  shores  of  some  of  the  bays  and 
on  the  hills.  The  defences  are  indeed  magnificent.  Very 
few  of  the  forts,  which  were  In  existence  during  the 
time  of  the  Chinese,  remain.  Since  the  Russian  Gov- 
ernment entered  upon  possession  the  work  of  extending 

xvlii 


INTRODUCTION 

the  perimeter  of  the  defences,  as  well  as  strengthening 
the  fortifications,  has  been  a  continuous  labour.  It  Is 
quite  clear  that  the  authorities  are  determined  upon  no 
half-measures.  They  have  gained  Port  Arthur,  and 
they  propose  to  keep  It.  Upon  the  cliffs,  rising  Imme- 
diately from  the  right  of  the  harbour  entrance,  there 
Is  a  most  powerful  position,  formed,  I  believe,  of  a 
battery  of  six  21 -Inch  Krupp  guns,  which  was  further 
supported  by  a  fort  placed  a  few  feet  above  the  harbour, 
and  sweeping  Its  Immediate  front,  containing  eight  10- 
Inch  Krupps.  At  the  corresponding  elevations  upon  the 
opposite  headland  there  were  two  similar  forts  with 
Identical  batteries,  while  the  mine  fields  within  the  har- 
bour are  controlled  from  these  two  lower  positions. 
Following  the  hills  to  the  south  and  north  there  are 
other  forts;  one  In  particular,  of  great  size,  Is  placed 
upon  the  extreme  crest  of  the  range,  and,  towering 
above  all  else,  sweeps  the  sea  and  approaches  to  the  har- 
bour for  great  distances.  It  Is  Impossible  to  detect  the 
character  of  these  guns,  but  from  their  position,  and 
the  extent  of  the  fort  and  the  nature  of  the  part  which 
they  are  Intended  to  fill.  It  Is  Improbable  that  they  can 
be  less  than  27-ton  guns,  discharging  shells  of  about 
500  lbs.  The  Interior  line  of  forts  is  no  less  formidable, 
and  It  must  seem  that  Port  Arthur  can  never  be  reduced 
by  bombardment  alone,  while  any  force  attacking  by 
land  would  be  severely  handled  by  the  positions  from 
which  the  Russians  propose  to  defend  their  flanks  and 
the  neck.     At  the  present,  however,  there  Is  a  paucity 

xlx 


KOREA 

of  field-guns  among  the  troops  in  garrison,  in  addition 
to  which  many  of  the  more  recently  constructed  forts 
lack  artillery;  while  the  opinion  may  be  hazarded  that 
the  entire  position  has  been  so  over-fortified  as  to  be- 
come a  source  of  eventual  weakness  in  the  ultimate 
disposition  of  the  Russian  force. 

Of  course  a  fight  for  the  command  of  the  sea  must 
precede  any  land  operations.  Japan  is  within  fifteen 
hours  steam  of  Fusan,  already  a  Japanese  garrison- 
town,  and  of  Ma-san-po,  the  port  to  which  Russia  and 
Japan  make  equal  claim.  The  strait  separating  Japan 
from  Korea  is  200  miles  broad,  while  Russia's  nearest 
base  at  Port  Arthur  is  900  miles  away  on  one  hand  and 
Vladivostock  is  1200  miles  away  on  the  other.  It  fol- 
lows therefore,  that  in  Korea,  and  not  in  Manchuria, 
the  troops  of  the  Japanese  army  would  be  landed.  Once 
established  in  Korea,  Japan  would  be  able  to  dispute 
the  supremacy  of  the  sea  on  equal  terms.  In  this  respect 
the  possession  by  the  Japanese  of  numerous  torpedo 
craft  confers  a  distinct  advantage  upon  them,  since  it 
will  be  within  their  power  to  utilise  their  services  if  the 
Russian  fleet  were  to  attempt  to  check  the  movement. 
The  absence  of  any  facilities  for  repairing  damages 
makes  it  certain  that  so  far  as  possible  the  Russian  fleet 
will  evade  any  serious  engagement.  It  would  be  difli- 
cult  to  improve  upon  the  position  of  Japan  in  this  re- 
spect. At  Yokosuka,  from  which  place  a  large  number 
of  cruisers  have  been  launched,  there  is  a  very  extensive 
building-yard,  and  Japan  also  possesses  suitable  docks 

XX 


INTRODUCTION 

for  large  ships  at  Kure  and  Nagasaki.  In  all  she  has 
at  her  immediate  disposal  some  half  a  dozen  docks,  400 
ft.  in  length  or  more,  and  a  very  skilful  army  of  work- 
ing mechanics  and  workmen  in  general.  Port  Arthur 
must  be  regarded  for  practical  purposes  the  naval  base 
of  Russia  in  the  Far  East  in  the  event  of  a  cold-weather 
campaign. 

Vladivostock  is  too  far  removed  from  the  range  of 
probable  utility.  At  this  port,  however,  Russia  has  con- 
structed one  large  dry  dock,  one  floating  dock  301  ft. 
long,  and  a  second  dry  dock  has  been  laid  down. 
Against  these  two  solitary  and  isolated  centres,  Japan 
possesses  naval  bases,  arsenals  and  docks  at  the  follow- 
ing points  on  her  coast. 

Yokosuka  ..  .Arsenal,  slip  and  dry  dock. 

Kure Arsenal,  slip,  dry  dock,  armor-plate  works. 

Sassebo Arsenal. 

Maitsura.  .  .  .New  dockyard. 
Nagasaki.  .  ..Three  docks. 
Takeshiki  . .  .  Coaling-station,  naval  base. 
Ominato  ....  Base    or  small  craft. 

Kobe Torpedo  repairing  yard. 

Matsmai  ....  Refitting  station. 

The  squadrons  which  Japan  and  Russia  will  be  able 
to  employ  in  this  war  are  very  formidable,  and  during 
the  past  few  months  each  Power  has  made  strenuous 
efforts  to  Increase  the  strength  of  Its  fleet. 

In  January  1903  the  aggregate  tonnage  of  the  Rus- 
sian Pacific  Squadron  stood  at  some  87,000  tons,  the 

xxi 


KOREA 

fleet  Including  the  battleships  Peresviet,  Petropavlovsk, 
Poltava,  Sevastopol,  and  the  cruisers  Rossia,  Gromoboi, 
and  Rurik,  with  other  smaller  vessels. 

In  March  the  tonnage  went  up  to  93,000  tons,  thanks 
to  the  arrival  of  the  cruiser  Askold  from  the  Baltic. 

In  May  the  cruisers  Diana,  Pallada,  Novik,  and  the 
battleship  Retvizan  joined. 

In  June  the  cruisers  Bogatyr  and  Boyarin  reached 
the  scene. 

In  July  the  battleship  Probleda  arrived. 

In  November  the  battleship  Tzarevitch  and  the 
cruiser  Bayan  further  added  to  Russia's  strength. 

In  December  the  battleship  Oslyahya,  the  armoured 
cruiser  Dimitri  Donskoi,  the  protected  cruisers  Aurora 
and  Almaz,  and  eleven  torpedo-boat  destroyers. 

In  January  1904  the  battleship  Imperator  Alexander 
III.  leaves  the  Baltic  for  the  Far  East. 

Russia  has  laboured  under  great  disadvantages  to 
secure  her  position  in  this  region.  In  consequence  of 
restricted  shipbuilding  resources  and  owing  to  an  un- 
fortunate geographical  position,  Russia  has  not  en- 
joyed those  opportunities  of  adding  to  her  Pacific  fleet 
which  have  presented  themselves  to  Japan.  In  effect,  if 
not  In  fact,  Russia  is  compelled  to  maintain  four  navies. 
Unhappily,  each  Is  Isolated  from  the  other,  many  hun- 
dreds of  miles  separating  them.  Naval  squadrons  are 
concentrated  In  the  Baltic,  in  the  Black  Sea,  in  the 
Caspian  Sea  and  in  the  Pacific.  The  Pacific  squadron 
is  of  recent  establishment  and  of  most  modern  con- 

xxli 


INTRODUCTION 

struction.  It  dates  back  to  1898,  from  which  time  her 
policy  of  naval  expansion  began.  Orders  were  placed 
with  France,  Germany  and  America  for  cruisers  and 
battleships,  coal  was  bought  at  Cardiff,  and  in  a  short 
space  the  nucleus  of  a  powerful  fleet  had  sprung  Into 
existence.  At  the  present  time  these  new  ships  are 
deficient  in  the  various  ratings,  and  hundreds  of  me- 
chanics, gunners  and  engineers  have  been  withdrawn 
from  the  Black  Sea  Squadron  to  do  service  with  the 
Pacific  Fleet,  moving  to  the  Pacific  Ocean  from  the 
Black  Sea  by  means  of  the  Trans-Siberian  Railway. 
Just  now,  and  until  the  acute  phase  of  the  crisis  has  dis- 
appeared or  war  has  been  declared,  the  disposition  of 
the  Russian  Pacific  Squadron  Is  as  follows. 

At  Port  Arthur,  the  battleships  Petropavlovsk,  Pol- 
tava, Sevastopol,  Peresviet,  Retvizan,  Prohleda,  and 
Tzarevitch;  the  first-class  cruisers  Bayan,  Askold,  Pal- 
lada,  Diana,  and  Varyag;  the  gunboats  Bobr,  Grem- 
yashtchi,  and  Koreetz;  the  transports  Amur,  Yenissei, 
and  Angara',  the  torpedo-cruisers  Vsadnik  and  Gaida- 
mak;  and  the  destroyers  Bezshumni,  Bezposhadni, 
Bditelni,  Bezstrashni,  Boevoi,  Vnimatelni,  Vnushitelni, 
Fiposlivi,  Vlastni,  Biirni,  and  Boiki. 

At  Vladivostock,  the  first-class  cruisers  Rossta, 
Gromohoi,  Rurik,  and  Bogatyr,  the  gunboat  Mand- 
chur,  and  the  transport  Lena. 

At  Chemulpo,  the  second-class  cruiser  Boyarin,  and 
the  destroyer  Grossovoi. 

At  Ma-san-po,  the  second-class  cruiser  Rasboinik. 
xxlli 


KOREA 

In  Nimrod  Bay,  the  second-class  cruiser  Djijdjit. 

At  Newchwang,  the  gunboats  Otvazhni  and  Sivuich, 

At  Nagasaki,  the  gunboat  Gilvak. 

It  will  be  seen  from  this  list  that  Russia  practically 
has  the  whole  of  her  Pacific  Squadron  In  and  about  the 
Yellow  Sea.  In  addition  to  this  force  there  is  the  squad- 
ron now  en  suite  for  the  Far  East,  which  lately  passed 
through  BIzerta.  This  comprises  the  battleship  Osly- 
abya,  two  second-class  cruisers,  y^^/ror^  and  Dimitri  Don- 
skoi,  and  eleven  torpedo-boat  destroyers.  The  added 
strength  which  Russia  will  receive  when  these  reinforce- 
ments, under  Admiral  VIrenlus,  reach  her  will  give 
her  a  numerical  superiority  over  Japan.  The  greater 
efficiency,  and  that  higher  degree  of  skill,  which  Is  so 
noticeable  aboard  the  Japanese  fleet,  reduces  this  pre- 
ponderance to  a  mean  level.  However,  Russia  Is  by 
no  means  to  be  caught  napping,  as  the  formation  In 
Port  Arthur  of  a  reserve  naval  brigade  tends  to  show. 
Meanwhile,  however,  the  subjoined  detailed  list  pre- 
sents the  principal  vessels  In  the  Russian  Pacific  Squad- 
ron. The  officers  commanding  are: 
VIce-Admlral  Stark, 
Rear-Admiral  Prince  Ukhtomski, 
Rear-Admiral  Baron  Shtakelberg, 
Admiral  Virenius  (to  join). 


XXIV 


INTRODUCTION 

BATTLESHIPS 


Tzarevitch  (flagship) 

Probleda 

Poltava 

Sevastopol 

Petropavlovsk 

Peresviet 

Retvizan 


Built 


I901 
1900 
1894 

1895 
1894 
1898 
1900 


Tonnage 


13,000 
12,000 
11,000 
11,000 
11,000 
12,000 
12,700 


Speed, 
knots 


18 
19 
17 
17 
17 
19 
18 


Chief  armament 


4 
12 

4 
II 

4 
12 

4 

12 

4 
12 

]  10 

I  12 


12  in. 

6  in. 
10  in. 

6  in. 
12  in. 

6  in. 
12  in. 

6  in. 
12  in. 

6  in. 
10  in. 

6  in. 
12  in. 

6  in. 


Reinforcements  to  join:  Oslyabya,  12,000  tons,  4  lo-in.  guns,  10 
6-in.  guns;  Navarin,  9,000  tons,  4  12-in,  guns,  8  6-in  guns;  Imperator 
Alexander  III. 

CRUISERS 


Built 


Tonnage 


Speed, 
knots 


Chief  armament 


Askold . . . 
Bayan 

Gromoboi 

Rossia . . . 

Rurik 

Bogatyr  . . 
Varyag  .  . 
Diana  .  . . 
Pallada... 
Boyarin  .. 
Novik  .  . . 
Zabiuca  .. 
Djijdjit... 
Rasboinik 


1900 
1900 

1899 

1896 

1892 

1901 
1899 
1899 
1899 
1900 
1900 
1878 
1878 
1879 


7,000 
8,000 

12,000 

12,000 


6,000 
6,000 
7,000 
7,000 
3,000 
3,000 
1,300 
1,300 
1,300 


23 
21 


18 

23 
23 
20 
20 
22 

25 
14 
13 
13 


12  6  in. 

2  8  in. 
8  6  in. 
4  8  in. 

16  6  in. 

4  8  in. 
16  6  in. 

4  8  in. 
16  6  in. 
12  6  in. 
12  6  in. 

8  6  in. 

8  6  in. 

6  4.7  in. 

6  4.7  in. 
Field  guns 

3  6  in. 
3  6  in. 


Reinforcements  to  join:  Gremvashtchi,  Admiral  Nakhimoff;  Au- 
rora, Admiral  Komiloff;  Otrajny,  Dmitri  Donskoi;  Almaz. 


XXV 


KOREA 

The  gunboats  on  this  station  number  nine,  the  de- 
stroyers eighteen,  and  the  transports  six.  Thirteen 
destroyers  are  to  join. 

This  fleet,  with  reinforcements,  compares  numerically 
with  the  eventual  strength  of  Japan  as  follows : 

Battleships  Cruisers 

Russia 10  21 

Japan 7  26 

A  proportion  of  Japanese  cruisers  would  be  needed 
for  coast  defence,  so  that  Russia  is  becoming  numeri- 
cally the  stronger  for  sea  work.  In  addition,  Russia 
also  has  a  powerful  auxiliary  fleet,  consisting  of  ten 
steamers  of  the  Black  Sea  Steam  Navigation  Company, 
most  of  which  were  built  on  the  Tyne,  and  average 
fourteen  knots.  The  Russian  Volunteer  Fleet  Associa- 
tion numbers  twelve  Tyne  and  Clyde  built  ships.  They 
are  also  at  the  disposal  of  the  authorities. 

Against  this  fighting  array  the  Japanese  are  able  to 
place  vessels  of  equal  size  and  displacement;  in  the 
actual  weight  of  metal  the  Japanese  are  at  a  disadvan- 
tage, but  In  the  thickness  of  the  armoured  protection 
there  is  little  to  choose.  Against  this  comparative 
equality  of  the  opposing  fleets  there  must  be  borne  In 
mind  the  great  advantage  which  Japan  derives  from  her 
ability  to  use  her  own  fortified  ports  as  naval  bases. 
Indeed,  this  is  of  such  importance  that  the  knowledge 
of  this  fact  might  Induce  her  to  risk  her  whole  strength 
in   a   single   engagement.     Again,    in   the  mercantile 

xxvi 


INTRODUCTION 

marine,  which  has  Increased  enormously  of  recent  years, 
Japan  will  find  all  she  may  require  for  the  purposes  of 
transport  and  auxiliaries  to  the  war  fleet.  The  princi- 
pal vessels  in  the  Japanese  navy  are  here  Indicated : 

BATTLESHIPS 


Name 

Displacement 

I.H.P. 

Nominal 
Speed 

Gun  Pro- 
tection 

Weight  of 

Broadside 

Fire 

Hatsuse       J 

Asahi           >• 

Shikishima  ) 
Mikasa 

Tons 

15,000 

15,200 
12,300 

15,000 

16,000 
13,000 

Knots 

18.0 

18.0 
18.0 

In. 

14.6 

14.6 
14.6 

Lbs. 

4240 

4225 
4000 

Fashima 

Yuji         ) 

ARMOURED    CRUISERS 


Name 

Displacement 

I.H.P. 

Nominal 
Speed 

Gun  Pro- 
tection 

Weight  of 

Broadside 

Fire 

Tokiwa  ) 

Asama   ) 

Yaqumo 

Azuma 

Tons 

97SO 
9850 
9436 
9800 

18,000 

16,000 
17,000 

15,000 

Knots 

21-5 
20.0 
21.0 

24.7 

In. 
6.6 

6.6 
6.6 

6.6 

Lbs. 

3568 

3368 
3368 

3568 

Idzuma  ) 

Iwate     ) 

In  addition  to  these,  early  in  January  1904  the  two 
cruisers  purchased  In  Italy  from  the  Argentine  Govern- 
ment will  be  ready  for  sea. 


xxvu 


KOREA 

PROTECTED    CRUISERS 


Name 


Displacement 

I.H.P. 

Nominal 
Speed 

Gun  Pro- 
tection 

Tons 

Knots 

In. 

4300 

15,500 

24.0 

4.2 

4784 

15,500 

22.5 

4§.o 

4277 

5400 

16.7 

ii»4 

4180 

15,750 

23.0 

— 

3727 

7120 

17-8 

— 

3150 

8400 

19.0 

— 

3420 

9500 

20.0 

— 

2700 

8500 

20.0 

— 

Weight  of 

Broadside 

Fire 


Takasago 
Kasagi 
Chitose 
Itsukushima ) 
Hashidate  >- 
Matsushima  ) 

Yoshino 

Naniwa 

Takachiko 

Akitsushima 

Nitaka 

Tsushima 

Suma    ) 

Akashi  \  * 


Lbs. 

800 
800 

1260 

780 

1 196 

780 

920 

335 


In  connection  with  the  First  Division  of  the  Japanese 
Fleet  an  interesting  fact  has  transpired  which,  from  rea- 
son of  its  association  with  this  country,  will  prove  of 
more  than  ordinary  interest.  In  case  of  war  it  appears 
that  with  one  exception  the  ships  comprising  this  di- 
vision are  all  British  built.  Designs,  armour-plating 
and  armament  follow  the  type  and  standard  of  our  own 
Navy,  and  it  is  therefore  obvious  that  we  cannot  fail 
to  be  stirred  deeply  by  the  results  of  any  collision  which 
may  occur.  Each  nation  possesses  in  Far  Eastern 
waters  ships  supplied  with  the  latest  appliances  which 
science  and  ingenuity  have  devised.  To  the  people  of 
this  Empire,  whose  security  rests  primarily  upon  the 
Fleet,  our  Interest  In  the  engagements  Is  naturally  the 
higher,  by  reason  of  the  similarity  between  the  ships 

xxviii 


INTRODUCTION 


which  will  be  engaged  upon  one  side  and  those  of  our 
own  Navy.  These  vessels,  all  of  which  have  received 
their  war-paint,  and  whose  place  of  concentration  is 
Nagasaki,  some  585  nautical  miles  from  Port  Arthur, 
are  as  follows: 


Name 


Hatsuse  (B)... 
Shikishima  (B). 

Asahi(B) 

Fuji(B) 

Yashima  (B)  .. 

Iwate  (C) 

Asama  (C) 

Idzuma  (C)  . . . 
Tokiwa  (C)  ... 
Takasago  (C)  . 
Kasagi  (C)  . . . 


Where  built 

Tonnage 

Elswick 

15,000 

Thames 

15,000 

Clyde 

15,000 

Blackwall 

12,500 

Elswick 

12,500 

Elswick 

10,000 

Elswick 

10,000 

Elswick 

10,000 

Elswick 

10,000 

Elswick 

4300 

Cramp 
(Philadelphia) 

5000 

Chief  armament 


4 
14 

4 
14 

4 
14 

4 
10 

4 
10 

4 
10 

4 
10 

4 
14 

{  10 

i  10 

i  10 


12  m. 

6  in. 
12  in. 

6  in. 
12  in. 

6  in. 
12  in. 

6  in. 
12  in. 

6  in. 

8  in. 

6  in. 

8  in. 

6  in. 

8  in. 

6  in. 

8  in. 

6  in. 

8  in. 

4.7  in. 

8  in. 

4.7  in. 


(B)  battleship;  (C)  cruiser. 
A    torpedo    flotilla,    numbering    thirty-five    vessels, 
forms  part  of  this  division.    The  other  divisions  of  the 
fleet  for  war  comprise  the  following: 


Battleships 
Cruisers  .  . 
Small  craft 


Third  division 

Second  division 

(Home) 

2 



10 

8 

30 

80 

In  addition  to  these  the  auxiliary  fleet  numbers  some 


XXIX 


KOREA 

forty  steamers,  for  the  most  part  vessels  belonging  to 
the  Nippon  Yusen  Kalsha. 

The  present  constitution  of  the  Japanese  Army  dates 
from  1873,  and  the  Military  Forces  consist  of — (i) 
the  permanent  or  Regular  Army,  with  its  Reserves  and 
Recruiting  Reserves;  (2)  the  Territorial  Army;  (3) 
the  National  Militia;  and  (4)  the  Militia  of  the  vari- 
ous island  centres  off  the  coast,  etc.  Military  service 
is  obligatory  In  the  case  of  every  able-bodied  male  from 
the  age  of  seventeen  to  forty  years  of  age.  Of  this 
period,  three  years  are  passed  in  the  permanent  or  Regu- 
lar Army,  four  years  and  four  months  in  the  Regular 
Reserves,  five  years  In  the  Territorial  Army,  and  the 
remaining  liability  in  the  National  Militia.  The  per- 
manent Army,  with  Its  Reserves,  conducts  operations 
abroad,  and  the  Territorial  Army  and  the  Militia  are 
for  home  defence.  These  latter  are  equipped  with  Pea- 
body  and  Remington  single-loading  rifles.  The  up-to- 
date  strength  of  the  permanent  Army,  on  a  war  foot- 
ing, which  does  not  Include  the  Reserves,  Is  as  follows : 


Officers 


Rank  and 
File 


Horses 


Infantry,  52  regiments  of  3  battalions 
156  battalions 

Cavalry,  17  regiments  of  3  squadrons, 
51  squadrons 

Field  and  Mountain  Artillery,  19  regi- 
ments of  six  batteries,  total  114  bat- 
teries of  six  guns  =  684  guns 

Fortress  Artillery,  20  battalions 

Engineers  I  '^  ^^PP^''  battalions 

l^ngineers  ^     ^  Railway  battalion 

Transport,  13  battalions 


4160 
400 


800 

530 

270 

20 

220 


143,000 
9300 


12,500 

10,300 

7000 

550 
7740 


52 
9000 

8800 

70 

215 

15 

40,000 


Total  =  684  guns,  6400  officers,  190,390  rank  and  file,  58,152  horses. 

XXX 


INTRODUCTION 

The  Reserves  comprise  52  battalions  of  Infantry,  17 
squadrons,  26  Engineer  and  Transport  companies,  and 
19  batteries  with  114  guns,  yielding  a  total  of  1000 
officers,  34,600  rank  and  file,  and  9000  horses.  There- 
fore, on  mobilisation,  the  grand  effective  strength  of 
the  Army  available  for  service  beyond  the  seas  would 
amount  to  7400  officers,  224,990  rank  and  file,  798 
guns,  and  67,152  horses.  Behind  this,  there  Is  the  Ter- 
ritorial Army,  comprising  386  Infantry  battalions,  99 
squadrons,  26  Engineer  and  Transport  companies,  and 
about  70  batteries,  or  11,735  officers,  348,100  men, 
1 1 16  guns,  and  86,460  horses. 

The  Infantry  and  Engineers  of  the  Regular  Army 
have  been  recently  re-armed  with  the  MeldjI  maga- 
zine rifle.  The  following  particulars  show  that  the 
Japanese  small  arm  Is  a  superior  weapon  to  the  Rus- 
sian, which  dates  from  1891 : 

Japanese  "  Meidji,"  model  1897. 


Calibre. 

Muzzle               Sighted 
velocity.               up  to 
Ft.-Sec.               Yards. 

Weight 

with 
Bayonet. 

No.  of 
Rounds 
in  Mag. 

.255in- 

2315                     700 

9  lb.  2  oz. 

5 

Russian  "  Three-Line,"  model  1891. 

.299in. 

1900            2500 

9  lb.  12  oz. 

5 

The  Regular  Cavalry  have  the  Meidji  carbine.  The 
Reserves  are  armed  with  the  Murata  magazine  rifle, 
model  1894,  calibre  .312  In.,  muzzle  velocity  2000 
feet-seconds,  sighted  up  to  2187  yds.,  and  weight  with 
bayonet,  9  lb.  i  oz.  The  equipment  carried  by  the  In- 
fantry soldier  in  the  field  weighs  43  >^  lbs. 

xxxi 


KOREA 

The  Regular  Field  and  Mountain  Artillery  is  armed 
with  2.95  in.  quick-firing  equipment,  with  hydraulic 
compressor,  throwing  a  10  lb.  projectile.  This  is  known 
as  the  Arisaka  equipment.  The  Fortress  and  Siege 
Artillery  have  the  latest  models  of  Krupp  and 
Schnelder-Canet  in  siege  guns,  guns  of  position,  and 
mortars.  The  Reserve  Field  Artillery  are  armed  with 
a  2.95  rifled  cannon  of  bronze  on  the  old  Italian  model. 
The  Japanese  have  no  Horse  Artillery,  and  the  only 
difference  between  the  field  and  mountain  equipments  is 
that  the  latter  Is  the  shorter  and  lighter  gun,  and  has 
not  as  long  a  range.  The  Cavalry  Is  the  least  efficient 
army  of  the  service.  It  carries  sword  and  carbine,  but 
no  lance.  The  horses  are  badly  trained;  the  men  are 
very  indifferent  riders. 

The  strength  of  the  Russian  forces  In  Manchuria 
embraces  88  battalions,  60  squadrons  and  50  batteries, 
which,  together  with  the  garrison  forces  and  fortress 
armament,  numbers  200,000  men  and  300  guns.  These 
troops  In  Manchuria  are  formed  Into  two  army  corps 
of  the  first  line  and  two  of  the  second.  Two  new  Rifle 
Brigades  have  just  been  added  to  the  existing  strength. 
They  are  composed  as  follows: 


7TH  Brigade 
Port  Arthur 
General  Kondratenko 
25th  Regiment 
26th 

27th         "         \  r       \ 
28th         "  ("^^) 


8th  Brigade 
Vladivostock 
General  Artamanoff 
29th  Regiment 

30th      ;; 

32nd      '"      [  ("*^) 


xxxu 


INTRODUCTION 

The  Russian  is  a  phenomenal  marcher;  the  actual 
weight  of  his  equipment  is  58  lbs.  2  oz.  One  tent  is 
carried  In  section  between  six  men.  Each  soldier  carries 
in  his  haversack  two  and  a  half  days'  biscuits.  The 
ration  in  daily  use  for  war  consists  of 


Biscuit I  lb.  13  oz 

Meat 74  oz. 

Groats 4f  oz. 

Salt I^oz. 


Tea /^  oz. 

Sugar ^oz. 

Spirits A  of  a  pint 


In  the  exigencies  of  active  service  It  happens  that  the 
Russian  soldier  must  forage  for  himself.  Under  any 
circumstances,  however,  he  sustains  himself  on  very 
little  nourishment,  and  relies  in  a  great  measure  upon 
what  he  can  find.  The  Russian  cavalry  is  armed  with 
sword,  rifle  and  bayonet.  The  latter  is  invariably 
carried  "  fixed,"  even  when  the  weapon  itself  is  slung. 
A  few  regiments  only  carry  the  lance.  The  field  guns 
are  steel  breech-loaders  manufactured  at  the  Obukhov 
works.  They  are  akin  to  the  Krupp  pattern;  many, 
however,  have  the  interrupted  screw  breech  piece  and 
the  de  Bange  obturation.  At  present  there  are  many 
varieties  of  artillery  with  the  Russian  troops,  particularly 
in  their  fortified  positions,  to  which  places  the  Russian 
transported  the  seizures  which  they  made  from  the 
Chinese  during  the  Boxer  crisis.  These  embraced 
French,  German  and  British  examples  of  artillery. 

On  land,  the  Immense  superiority  of  the  reserve  num- 
bers of  the  Russians  reduces  the  advantages  which 
would  accrue  to  the  Japanese  if  the  fighting  were  con- 

xxxiii 


KOREA 

fined  to  the  sea.  At  the  same  time,  however,  it  should 
be  remembered  that  the  Russian  troops  are  slow  movers, 
and  although  they  may  exhibit  magnificent  endurance, 
and  although  they  may  be  relied  upon  to  fight  well,  the 
lack  of  individual  initiative  upon  the  part  of  the  Russian 
officers  robs  the  operations  of  that  dash  and  address 
which  is  embodied  in  the  spirit  of  the  Japanese  army. 
Curiously  enough,  each  side  favours  the  Continental 
school  of  infantry  and  cavalry  tactics,  the  underlying 
principles  in  the  training  of  the  Japanese  revealing  a 
close  adherence  to  Teutonic  methods.  Neither  side  will 
profit,  therefore,  by  any  degree  of  indivisibility  to  which 
they  may  have  attained.  The  winter  great-coat  of 
either  army  is  very  nearly  identical  in  colour,  and  for 
warm  weather  Japanese  and  Russians  alike  favour  a 
white  blouse.  There  has  been  talk  of  the  Japanese 
adopting  a  khaki  tint;  upon  the  other  hand,  the  blouse 
of  the  Russian  soldier  is  by  courtesy  equally  white  or 
khaki.  In  the  more  important  direction  of  land  trans- 
port, it  might  appear  that  the  Manchurian  railway 
would  be  a  crowning  triumph  for  the  Russian  authori- 
ties. Unfortunately,  this  immense  length  of  rail,  badly 
laid  and  indifferently  equipped,  will  impose  a  perpetual 
strain  upon  the  military  resources.  If  the  country  popu- 
lation could  be  relied  upon  to  maintain  a  benevolent 
neutrality  towards  telegraph  poles  and  lines,  railway 
sleepers  and  rails,  the  stone  pillars  and  balks  of  the 
bridges,  the  possibility  of  any  serious  interruption  of 
traffic  would  be  materially  lessened.    Unhappily  for  the 

xxxiv 


INTRODUCTION 

Russians,  the  attitude  and  acts  of  the  native  population, 
who,  in  a  general  way,  will  lose  no  opportunity  to  harass 
their  enemy,  must  impede  the  effective  co-operation  of 
the  Russian  forces. 

Against  this  instinctive  feeling  of  animosity  there 
may  be  set  the  racial  sympathy  with  the  Japanese  which 
governs  every  Chinaman.  In  Manchuria  particularly, 
the  Japanese  enjoy  a  high  reputation  in  the  minds  of 
the  populace,  while  there  is  remembered,  above  aught 
else,  that  prompt  redemption  of  all  obligations  during 
the  Chino- Japanese  War  which  distinguished  the  policy 
of  the  invaders  towards  local  interests.  This  policy  of 
benevolence  was  exhibited  for  the  second  time  during 
the  Boxer  crisis,  and,  of  course,  the  striking  example 
offered  by  the  Japanese,  in  comparison  with  the  Rus- 
sians, was  not  lost  upon  the  Chinese.  These  things  are 
recalled  to-day  in  Manchuria,  and  they  may  be  calcu- 
lated to  offset  any  reactionary  sentiment  which  may  take 
place  in  Korea.  Between  the  hospital  arrangements  of 
each  belligerent  there  is  little  to  choose.  The  more  ef- 
ficient system  of  the  Japanese  service  is  equalised  by  the 
greater  facilities  which  the  possession  of  railway  com- 
munication by  the  Russians  will  present  to  the  trans- 
portation of  the  wounded.  It  should  be  pointed  out, 
however,  that  the  principal  medical  service — the  Rus- 
sian Red  Cross  Society — is  wholly  patriotic,  and  that 
It  is  not,  in  any  degree,  a  military  organisation.  It  is 
liable  to  be  withdrawn  from  the  field  at  any  moment 
after  the  conclusion  of  the  major  operations. 

XXXV 


KOREA 

Beyond  these  few  observations  it  is  difficult — If  not 
impossible — to  trespass  with  any  certainty,  although, 
as  a  closing  remark,  it  may  perhaps  be  added  that,  pro- 
vided the  Investment  of  Port  Arthur  be  satisfactorily 
accomplished  by  sea  and  that  Vladivostock  were  en- 
closed by  ice,  the  estuaries  of  the  Yalu  and  Lico  Rivers 
enable  an  admirable  position  to  be  taken  up,  from 
which  the  Russian  position  throughout  Manchuria  may 
be  very  readily  threatened.  Speculations  as  to  the  de- 
velopment of  the  campaign  upon  land  are,  however, 
quite  absurd  until  something  Is  known  of  the  results 
of  the  naval  engagements  with  which  the  war  must 
open.  Meanwhile  the  painful  familiarity  with  the  costs 
of  war  which  distinguishes  the  British  taxpayer  has  di- 
rected no  little  attention  to  the  financial  position  of 
either  country.  An  eminent  German  financier.  Inter- 
ested In  the  public  debt  of  Russia,  lately  explained  to 
me  that  a  very  large  proportion  of  the  moneys,  which 
have  been  raised  for  the  construction  of  the  Russian 
Inter-railway  communications  In  addition  to  the  Trans- 
Siberian  and  Manchurlan  Railways,  has  been  set  aside 
from  time  to  time  to  supplement  her  war  chest.  These 
sums,  added  to  those  collected  by  Count  Mouravieff 
with  the  assent  of  M.  de  WItte,  and  Including  the  large 
balances  which  have  accrued  to  the  State  by  depart- 
mental economies  during  the  past  year,  represent  ap- 
proximately a  capital  of  one  hundred  millions  sterling. 
Against  this  accumulation  it  Is  said  that  the  financial 
position  of  Japan  is  most  favourable.     There  Is,  I  be- 

xxxvi 


INTRODUCTION 

lleve,  a  specie  reserve  In  the  Central  Bank  which 
amounts  to  113,000,000  yen,  plus  some  40,000,000 
yen  In  London.  Moreover,  the  bank's  note-Issuing 
margin  Is  35,000,000  yen,  which  will  be  larger  after 
the  New  Year.  The  Treasury  has  three  capital  funds, 
amounting  together  to  50,000,000  yen,  besides  some 
millions  In  London  remaining  from  the  bond  sale  of 
1902.  Finally,  there  are  large  sums  lying  Idle  In  all 
the  banks  throughout  the  country,  while  an  Ordinance 
has  been  Issued  which  provides  the  Government  with 
unlimited  credit. 

The  more  recent  action  of  the  Russians  In  Manchuria 
tends,  of  course,  to  support  the  view  that  war  may  be 
imminent.  Nevertheless,  bluff  Is  a  component  part  of 
Russian  diplomacy,  and  there  Is  ground  for  believing 
that  the  Intentions  of  Russia  In  the  Far  East  are  by  no 
means  so  warlike  as  the  preparations  now  proceeding 
and  the  acts  of  the  Russian  administrative  officials  In 
Manchuria  Itself  would  Imply.  Russian  diplomacy  al- 
ways covers  the  development  of  Its  plans  by  preparing 
to  demonstrate  In  a  contrary  direction ;  and  at  the  pres- 
ent time  her  occupation  of  Korean  territory  Is  little  else 
than  the  screen,  behind  which  she  proposes  to  secure 
her  hold  upon  Manchuria.  Nothing  short  of  war  will 
cause  her  to  retire  from  her  position  In  Manchuria ;  but 
while  Korean  territory  Is  of  little  value  to  the  Russian 
protectorate,  whatever  the  compromise  which  may  be 
effected  between  Japan  and  Russia,  she  may  be  expected 
to  make  a   determined  effort  to   dominate  the  lower 

xxxvii 


KOREA 

waters  of  the  Yalu  River.  In  fact,  curious  as  it  may 
seem,  the  estuary  of  the  Yalu  River  is  the  very  locale 
of  the  dispute  between  the  two  Powers,  since,  if  Russia 
were  ever  permitted  to  dominate  the  Yalu  River,  she 
would  gain  at  once  that  special  position  upon  the  fron- 
tiers of  Korea  which  it  is  the  desire  of  Japan  to  frus- 
trate. In  this  Japan  can  rely  only  upon  the  shortshifts 
of  diplomacy;  and  although  the  Russian  occupation  of 
Yong-an-po  may  be  circumvented,  the  development  of 
An-tung  upon  the  opposite  shore  of  the  river  cannot 
be  prevented.  It  seems,  therefore,  as  inevitable  that 
some  commanding  position  upon  the  Yalu  River  must 
ultimately  fall  to  her  lot.  An-tung  lies  within  Man- 
churian  territory;  the  Yalu  River  is  the  border  stream 
between  Manchuria  and  Korea,  and  at  Yong-an-po  the 
nucleus  of  an  important  Russian  settlement  has  been 
established.  The  future  contains  no  promise  of  the 
immediate  settlement  of  the  present  difficulty.  At  best 
the  outlook  is  confused ;  while  at  the  same  time  there  is 
presented  in  a  manner  singularly  clear  and  comprehen- 
sible the  fact  that  Russia  neither  will  evacuate  New- 
chang,  be  driven  out  of  Manchuria,  nor  abandon  her 
position  on  the  Yalu  River.  The  position  of  Russia 
at  New-change  has  been  indicated  by  past  events,  her 
occupation  of  Manchuria  is  an  old  story,  and  she  is  now 
engaged  in  the  rapid  development  of  her  interests  at 
An-tung.  The  position  of  this  port  endows  It  with  un- 
usual advantages,  and  the  commercial  potentialities  of 
the  place  are  very  great.     It  lies  about  fifteen  miles 

xxxviii 


INTRODUCTION 

above  Yong-an-po,  on  the  opposite  bank.  At  present 
the  export  trade  Is  confined  to  millet  and  silk  cocoons, 
the  over-production  of  the  latter  commodity  requiring 
close  technical  supervision.  Eight  miles  below  An-tung, 
situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river,  Is  the  llkin 
station  San-tao-lan-tao,  where  junks  and  rafts  must  re- 
port and  pay  the  stipulated  excise  before  they  proceed 
onward.  The  river  then  bears  away  to  the  north-east, 
and  after  another  stretch  of  seven  miles  there  comes 
An-tung,  upon  the  same  bank,  at  a  point  where  the 
stream  divides,  the  eastern  branch  being  the  Yalu  River. 
An-tung  Is  of  quite  recent  construction,  and  a  few  years 
ago  millet  fields  occupied  Its  site.  Under  the  care  of 
native  merchants  large,  solid-looking  houses  have  been 
built,  broad  streets  have  been  opened  out,  and  an  air 
of  unusual  prosperity  distinguishes  the  place.  The 
anchorage  is  thronged  with  junks,  while  timber  is 
stacked  in  vast  quantities  below  the  limits  of  the  town. 
Sea-going  steamers  of  the  coaster  type  can  here  dis- 
charge and  load  their  cargoes,  thus  obviating  tranship- 
ment at  Ta-tung-kao. 

Trade  between  Ta-tung-kao,  which  is  situated  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Yalu,  and  Chl-fu,  is  at  present  carried  on 
by  small  steamers  of  the  Mosquito  flotilla  and  one 
British  ship,  the  Hwang-ho,  of  the  China  Navigation 
Company  (Messrs.  Butterfield  and  Swire),  while  the 
vast  volume  of  the  exports  and  imports  finds  its  way 
hither  and  thither  in  Chinese  junks.  The  run  from 
Chi-fu  port  is  one  of  a  hundred  and  eighty-five  miles, 

xxxix 


KOREA 

and  the  time  usually  occupied  in  the  trip  north-eastward 
is  twenty-two  hours,  the  steamers  anchoring  in  the  fair- 
way channel  at  a  distance  of  four  miles  from  Ta-tung- 
kao.  Ta-tung-kao  is  a  busy  town,  inasmuch  as  it  is 
the  place  of  transhipment  for  imports  and  exports,  most 
of  which  go  to  or  come  from  An-tung.  The  fact  of 
steamers  being  unable  to  approach  Ta-tung-kao  makes 
An-tung  the  real  business  centre  of  the  Yalu  River.  In 
respect  of  An-tung,  two  hundred  Russian  cavalry  have 
been  stationed  there  for  over  two  and  a  half  years. 
The  cantonment  is  situated  on  a  small  hill,  marking  the 
northern  limit  of  the  town,  which  has  no  wall.  As 
usual,  through  the  Yalu  Valley  these  soldiers  bear  an 
evil  reputation  among  the  natives,  from  whom  they 
commandeer  at  pleasure.  Striking  away  from  An-tung 
is  the  Pekin  "  Great  Road,"  which  runs  to  Liao-yang. 
Above  An-tung  the  river  divides  and  shoals  exist,  the 
water  being  so  shallow  that  none  but  native  craft  can 
ply.  Wi-ju  is  situated  about  ten  miles  to  the  eastward, 
and  at  a  point  west  of  Mao-kewi-shan,  four  miles  below 
An-tung,  there  is  the  terminus  of  the  branch  of  the 
Manchurian  railway,  which  is  to  strike  the  river.  The 
construction  of  this  work  will  begin  in  the  spring  of 
1904.  The  first  eighty  miles  offer  little  obstruction,  and 
it  is  intended  that  the  work  shall  be  pushed  forward 
until  Its  junction  with  the  main  line  of  the  system  is  ac- 
complished. Russia,  therefore,  cannot  well  afford  to 
Ignore  the  consequences  of  her  policy  in  the  Far  East, 
nor,  at  the  same  time,  can  she  be  expected  to  sacrifice, 

xl 


INTRODUCTION 

at  the  request  of  Japan,  those  great  interests  which  she 
has  been  at  such  pains  to  foster.  The  position  is,  in- 
deed, a  striking  example  of  the  manner  in  which  an  im- 
perious pohcy  will  create  the  taste,  if  not  the  necessity, 
for  Imperialism. 

The  position  of  Korea  in  regard  to  the  disputed  ques- 
tions is  a  hopeless  one.  Unfortunately,  the  government 
of  Korea  is  powerless  to  prevent  either  the  advance  of 
Russia  or  the  steady  spread  of  Japanese  influence.  She 
possesses  neither  army  nor  navy  which  can  be  put  to 
any  practical  use,  and  she  is  in  that  position  in  which 
a  country  is  placed  when  unable  to  raise  its  voice  upon 
its  own  behalf.  The  army  numbers  a  few  thousand 
men,  who,  in  the  last  few  years,  have  been  trained  to 
the  use  of  European  weapons.  They  are  armed  with 
the  Gras,  (obsolete  pattern)  Murata,  Martini,  and  a 
variety  of  muzzle-loading  smooth-bore  rifles.  Their 
shooting  powers  are  most  indifferent,  and  they  lack  be- 
sides the  qualities  of  courage  and  discipline.  There  is 
no  artillery,  and  the  cavalry  arm  is  confined  to  a  few 
hundred  men  with  no  knowledge  of  horse-mastership, 
and  with  no  idea  of  their  weapons  or  their  duties.  At 
a  moment  of  emergency  the  entire  force  of  mounted  and 
dismounted  men  would  become  utterly  demoralised. 
There  are  numerous  general  ofl^cers,  while,  I  believe, 
the  navy  is  composed  of  twenty-three  admirals  and  one 
iron-built  coal  lighter,  until  quite  lately  the  property 
of  a  Japanese  steamship  company.  Korea  is  the  help- 
less, hapless  sport  of  Japanese  caprice  or  Russian  lust; 

xli 


KOREA 

and  It  has  been  my  aim  to  present  an  Impartial  study  of 
the  condition  of  the  country  in  the  pages  of  this  volume. 
Since  so  many  and  so  much  abler  pens  have  dealt  with 
the  position  of  Manchuria  elsewhere,  I  have  confined 
myself  solely  to  a  review  of  Korea.  For  this  I  trust 
that  I  may  not  be  taken  to  task,  while  in  order  to  satisfy 
those  who  think  that  some  reference  to  the  questions 
of  Manchuria  should  have  been  Incorporated  in  my 
book  I  have  ventured  to  Impart  to  my  preface  the  ap- 
pearance of  a  chapter  which  deals  solely  with  this  prob- 
lem. And  now,  at  the  end  of  my  work,  a  last,  but  none 
the  less  pleasant,  duty  awaits  me.  In  addition  to  my 
own  notes  upon  Korea  I  have  gathered  information 
from  many  people — writers,  travellers,  and  students — 
all  interested  In  the  contemporary  history  of  the  Her- 
mit Kingdom.  These  I  now  hasten  to  thank,  and  by 
naming  them  I  would  mark  my  grateful  appreciation 
of  the  kindness  which  they  have  extended  to  mc.  To 
Mr.  MacLeavy  Brown,  of  the  Korean  Maritime 
Customs;  Mr.  Gubblns,  formerly  of  the  British  Lega- 
tion, Seoul;  to  my  distinguished  and  learned  friend, 
Professor  Homer  B.  Hulbert,  whose  published  notes 
upon  Korea  have  been  of  exceptional  value,  I  make 
hearty  acknowledgments;  to  Mrs.  Bishop,  Colonel 
Younghusband,  the  Rev.  Mr.  Griffis,  Major  Gould- 
Adams,  authors  of  interesting  and  important  contribu- 
tions to  any  study  of  Korea,  I  express  the  sense  of  my 
obligation;  to  the  Rev.  C.  Collyer,  who  was  good 
enough  to  make  my  spelling  of  Korean  names  Identical 

xlii 


INTRODUCTION 

with  the  standard  of  Dr.  Gale;  to  Mr.  Bolton,  of 
Messrs.  Stanford,  the  map  makers,  of  Long  Acre,  who 
laboured  so  patiently  with  the  many  shortcomings  of 
my  geographical  data,  I  am.  Indeed,  Indebted.  To  Sir 
Douglas  Straight,  editor  of  the  Pall  Mall  Gazette, 
whose  paper  It  was  my  delight  to  represent  throughout 
my  long  residence  in  the  Far  East;  to  Mr.  Nicol  Dunn, 
editor  of  the  Morning  Post;  to  Mr.  S.  J.  Pryor,  of  the 
Daily  Express,  I  have  to  record  my  acknowledgment  of 
the  courteous  permission  of  these  distinguished  people 
to  reproduce  such  portions  of  my  work  as  have  appeared 
in  the  columns  of  their  respective  organs  from  time  to 
time.  And  last  of  all  to  my  readers  I  offer  this  book 
in  the  hope  that  an  immediate  apology  for  Its  production 
may  be  permitted  to  atone  for  its  numerous  shortcom- 
ings. 

December  25,  1903. 


xliii 


CHAPTER    I 

OfF  the  coast — Lack  of  survey  intelligence — Island  flora — 
Forgotten  voyagers — Superstitions  and  beliefs — Outline 
of  history 

DESPITE  the  survey  work  which  has  been  accom- 
plished In  the  past  by  the  Japanese  upon  the 
coasts  of  Korea,  little  knowledge  of  the  numerous 
Islands  and  archipelagoes,  shoals  and  reefs  which  make 
its  shores  the  terror  of  all  mariners,  exists  at  present. 
Until  the  voyage  of  the  Alceste  and  Lyra  In  1816,  the 
locality  of  these  detached  groups  of  rocky  Islets  was  not 
marked  on  any  of  the  Japanese  or  Chinese  maps  of  the 
period.  In  the  map  of  the  Empire  prepared  by  the 
Jesuits  at  Pekin  In  the  seventeenth  century,  the  space 
now  occupied  by  the  Korean  Archipelago  was  covered 
with  the  drawing  of  an  elephant — the  conventional  sign 
of  Ignorance  with  the  cartographers  of  that  time.  In 
the  older  native  maps,  the  mainland  embraced  groups 
of  Islands,  the  most  imperfect  knowledge  of  the  physical 
configuration  of  their  own  shores  prevailing  among  the 
Koreans.  In  quite  recent  days,  however,  the  Korean 
Government  has  recognised  this  fact,  and  in  the  early 
months  of  1903  the  Japanese  Government  was  requested 
to  draw  up  a  complete  survey  of  the  Hermit  Kingdom. 

I 


KOREA 

This  work  is  now  in  process  of  execution,  the  plan  of 
the  coastline  already  having  been  completed. 

The  coast  of  Korea  is  remarkable  for  the  number  of 
spacious  harbours  which  distinguish  it.  Upon  the  West 
and  South,  indications  of  the  volcanic  period,  through 
which  the  country  has  in  part  passed,  are  shown  by  the 
frequency  with  which  these  island  groups  occur.  From 
a  single  peak  upon  one  of  the  small  islands  off  the 
south-west  coast,  as  many  as  one  hundred  and  thirty- 
five  islets  may  be  counted,  stretching  to  the  North  and 
to  the  South,  the  resort  of  the  sea- fowl;  desolate  and 
almost  uninhabited.  Many  of  the  more  important 
Islands  have  been  cultivated,  and  give  refuge  and  a 
lonely  home  to  small  communities  of  fishing-folk. 

Navigation  is  peculiarly  dangerous  in  these  waters. 
Many  of  the  islands  are  submerged  by  the  spring-tides, 
and  the  direction  of  the  channels,  scoured  by  the  rush  of 
the  tide,  becomes  quite  Indefinite.  In  the  absence  of 
charts  and  maps,  these  island-fringed  shores  have  been 
the  scene  of  many  shipwrecks;  Dutch,  American, 
French,  and  British  shipping  meeting  in  one  grim  and 
silent  procession  a  common  end:  captivity  on  shore  or 
death  in  the  sea.  Some  of  these  unfortunate  mariners 
survived  their  experiences,  leaving,  after  the  fashion  of 
•Hendrlk  Hamel,  the  supercargo  of  the  Dutch  frigate 
Sparwehr,  which  went  ashore  off  Quelpart  in  1653,  rec- 
ords and  histories  of  their  adventures  to  an  Incredulous 
posterity.  Most  of  the  Islands  lying  off  the  coast  are 
well  wooded.     As  they  are  very  beautiful  to  look  upon 

2 


OFF   THE   COAST 

and  very  dangerous  to  approach,  they  are  regarded  with 
mingled  sentiments  of  reverence  and  superstition,  differ- 
ing little.  In  their  expression,  from  the  fear  in  which  the 
ancients  held  the  terrors  of  Scylla  and  Charybdis. 
Their  isolated  position,  moreover,  makes  them  the  cen- 
tre of  much  contraband  trade  between  the  Chinese  and 
Koreans;  their  defenceless  state  renders  them  an  easy 
prey  to  any  pirates  who  care  to  ravage  them. 

The  islands  off  the  south-west  coast  are  the  sanc- 
tuaries of  many  animals.  Seals  sport  and  play  un- 
harmed among  the  rocks;  the  woody  peaks  are  rich  In 
game :  teal,  crane,  curlew,  quail,  and  Innumerable  small 
birds  make  them  their  breeding-grounds.  The  shores 
are  happy  hunting-grounds  for  naturalists,  and  a  vari- 
ety of  marine  food  Is  found  throughout  the  archipelago. 
A  number  of  well-marked  species  of  sponge  may  be 
gathered,  and  the  coral  beds  display  many  violent  tints 
and  delicate  shades,  forming  in  their  beautiful  colour- 
ings a  sea  garden  of  matchless  splendour.  The  flora  of 
these  islands  is  a  no  less  brilliant  feature  of  the  summer 
landscape.  Tiger-lilies,  showy  and  gigantic,  daisies, 
asters,  many  varieties  of  cactus,  grow  side  by  side  with 
curious  ferns,  palms  and  creepers,  almost  tropical  in  their 
character  and  profusion,  yet  surviving  the  cooler  tem- 
perature of  autumn  and  winter,  to  greet  each  coming 
spring  with  freshened  beauty.  The  air  vibrates  with  the 
singing  and  buzzing  of  Insects,  the  limpid  day  is  bright 
with  gaudy  butterflies.  Snow-white  herons  stand  In  the 
shallows.     Cormorants,  diving  birds  and  ducks  throng 

3 


KOREA 

the  reefs  to  rise  in  clouds  with  many  angry  splutterings 
when  their  haunts  are  invaded.  In  the  deeper  waters, 
there  are  myriads  of  fish;  in  passing  from  group  to 
group  along  the  coast  shoals  of  whales  are  to  be  seen, 
blowing  columns  of  spray  aloft,  or  sleeping  idly  upon 
the  surface. 

The  coast  of  Korea  is  well  sprinkled  with  the  names 
of  foreign  navigators,  who,  in  previous  centuries,  es- 
sayed to  visit  the  Land  of  the  Morning  Radiance.  With 
rare  exceptions,  these  visitors  were  turned  back.  Some 
were  captured  and  tortured;  many  were  ordered  off  at 
once,  few  were  ever  entertained.  None  were  invited  to 
make  any  stay  in  the  new  land,  or  permitted  to  inspect 
its  wonders  and  curiosities.  Beyond  the  Japanese,  those 
who  succeeded  in  sapping  the  wall  of  isolation  which 
was  so  carefully  built  around  the  country  and  so  rigor- 
ously maintained,  were  generally  escorted  inland  as  pris- 
oners, the  unconscious  victims  of  some  successful  strata- 
gem. In  a  manner,  the  fashion  of  their  treatment  is  re- 
vealed in  the  curious  names  with  which  these  pioneers 
of  navigation  have  labelled  the  capes  and  promontories, 
the  islands  and  shoals,  which  they  were  lucky  enough  to 
locate  and  whose  dangers  they  were  fortunate  enough  to 
avoid.  Many  of  these  names  have  ceased  to  be  recog- 
nised. The  lapse  of  time  has  caused  them  to  be  oblit- 
erated by  European  hydrographers  from  the  maps  and 
charts  of  the  country  and  seas,  in  which  their  originators 
had  risked  so  much.  In  many  parts  of  the  coast,  how- 
ever, particularly  upon  the  west,  along  the  shores  of  the 

4 


FORGOTTEN   VOYAGERS 

Chyung-chyong  Province,  these  original  names  have 
been  preserved.  They  form,  to-day,  a  tribute  to  the 
earnestness  and  Intrepidity  of  these  early  explorers. 
This  meed  of  recognition  is  only  just,  and  is  not  to  be 
denied  to  their  undoubted  gallantry  and  enterprise. 

It  is  not  impossible  to  believe  that  an  unusually  fickle 
fate  followed  in  their  footsteps,  prompting  them  to  leave 
thus  for  the  guidance  of  future  generations,  some  hint 
of  their  own  miscalculations.  If  one  may  judge,  from 
the  brief  narratives  which  these  discoverers  have  left 
behind  them,  the  result  of  their  work  upon  these  Inhos- 
pitable shores  surpassed  anything  that  they  had  foreseen. 
The  visit  of  these  hardy  spirits  aroused  the  curiosity  of 
the  Koreans,  giving  to  them  their  first  knowledge  of  that 
outer  world  which  they  had  spurned  for  centuries.  De- 
spite the  golden  opportunities  now  presented  to  them, 
however,  they  continued  to  neglect  It.  The  memory  of 
the  black  ships  and  the  red  beards  (Dutchmen) — as 
they  dubbed  the  strange  craft  and  stranger  devils,  that 
had  to  appear  only  off  their  shores  to  be  shipwrecked — 
dwelt  long  In  their  minds.  Although  they  treated  these 
strangers  with  comparative  generosity,  they  were  care- 
ful to  preserve  Inviolate  the  secrets  and  sanctity  of  their 
land.  They  rejected  with  contumacy  the  friendly  over- 
tures of  strangers  who  came  In  monster  ships,  and  who, 
forsooth,  left  behind  nothing  but  a  name.  It  Is  scarcely 
astonishing,  therefore,  that  there  are  many  points  upon 
the  coast  of  Korea  which  bear  somewhat  uncomplimen- 
tary names.     Deception  Bay,  Insult  Island,  and  False 

5 


KOREA 

River  savour  of  certain  physical  discomforts,  which,  too 
great  to  be  borne  in  silence,  left  an  indelible  impression 
upon  the  associations  of  the  spot. 

If  the  Dutch  sailors  of  1627  were  among  the  earliest 
to  reach  the  forbidding  shores  of  this  kingdom,  the  ac- 
tivities of  British  voyagers  were  most  prominent  in  the 
succeeding  century.  The  work  of  Captain  W.  R. 
Broughton,  of  the  British  sloop-o'-war,  of  sixteen  guns, 
Providence^  is  described  to  this  day  by  the  bays  and  har- 
bours into  which  he  penetrated,  and  the  capes  and  straits 
which  this  gallant  man  christened,  to  the  credit  of  the 
distant  island  kingdom  from  which  he  hailed.  Brough- 
ton in  1797,  Maxwell  of  the  Alceste,  with  Basil  Hall, 
commander  of  the  British  sloop-o'-war,  the  Lyra,  in 
1 8 16,  deserve  the  passing  fame  which  is  secured  to  them 
by  the  waters  and  capes  which  have  been  named  after 
them.  Their  names  figure  as  landmarks  upon  the  west, 
the  east,  and  the  south  coasts.  While  Maxwell  and 
Hall  preferred  to  devote  their  attention  to  the  discovery 
and  examination  of  the  Korean  Archipelago — of  which, 
although  Broughton  does  not  mention  it,  it  seems  impos- 
sible that  the  discoverer  of  Broughton  Strait  can  have 
been  ignorant — Broughton  roughly  charted  and  sur- 
veyed the  west  coasts,  coming  to  a  temporary  halt  in 
Broughton  Bay,  some  six  hundred  miles  to  the  north. 
Hall  left  his  name  in  Basil's  Bay,  where  Gutzlaff  landed 
in  1832  to  plant  potatoes  and  to  leave  seeds  and  books. 
A  generation  later,  In  1866,  the  archipelago  to  the 
north-west  was  named  after  the  Prince  Imperial,  who 

6 


SUPERSTITIONS   AND    BELIEFS 

was  to  meet  his  death  in  Zululand  in  1878.  In  1867, 
Prince  Jerome's  Gulf,  an  inlet  upon  the  mainland  of  the 
Chyung-chyong  Province,  was  to  be  the  scene  of  Op- 
pert's  famous  attempt  to  remove  large  deposits  of  buried 
treasure  and  venerated  relics  from  an  Imperial  tomb. 
These  names  upon  the  east  and  west  coasts  suggest  noth- 
ing of  the  romance  which  actually  surrounds  them.  At 
most  they  conjure  up  the  shadowy  silhouettes  of  the  re- 
doubtable personages,  to  whom  they  once  belonged,  and 
with  whose  memory  many  journeys  of  discovery  in  these 
seas  are  inseparably  linked. 

Englishmen  were  not  the  sole  navigators  who  were 
attracted  by  the  unknown  character  of  the  land,  and  the 
surpassing  dangers  of  the  waters,  around  the  Island  of 
Quelpart,  where  the  Sea  of  Japan  mingles  in  tempestu- 
ous chaos  with  the  Yellow  Sea.  Russian  and  French 
navigators  also  worked  their  way  through  the  danger- 
ous shoals  and  quicksands,  along  the  tortuous  and 
muddy  rivers,  into  the  harbours  and  through  the  nar- 
row straits  which  hold  back  these  islands  from  the  main- 
land. The  shores  teem  with  the  distinguished  names  of 
men  of  science  and  sons  of  the  high  seas.  Following  the 
curl  and  twist  of  its  configuration  a  host  of  buried  names 
are  revealed,  the  last  evidence  of  men  who  are  dead  and 
forgotten.  It  is  infinitely  pathetic  that  even  this  one  last 
resting-place  should  be  denied  to  their  reputations.  La- 
zareli,  who  shares  Broughton's  Bay;  Unkoffsky,  who 
foundered  in  the  waters  of  the  bay  which  is  described  by 
his  name;  the  ill-fated  La  Perouse,  who,  in  June,  1787, 

7 


KOREA 

discovered  In  the  Sea  of  Japan  an  island  which  now 
bears  the  name  of  the  astronomer — Dagelet.  Durock, 
Pelllsier,  Schwartz,  and  the  rest — what  echo  do  we  find 
of  them,  their  fates,  and  subsequent  careers?  Should 
not  their  names  at  least  bear  witness  to  their  pains  and 
labours,  to  the  difficulties  which  they  faced,  to  the  small 
joy  of  something  attempted,  something  done,  which  was 
their  sole  consolation  for  many  hours  of  cheerless  and 
empty  vigil  ? 

Korea  is  a  land  of  exceptional  beauty.  The  customs, 
the  literature,  and  the  geographical  nomenclature  of  the 
kingdom  prove  that  the  superb  and  inspiring  scenery  of 
the  peninsula  Is  quite  appreciated  by  the  people.  In 
the  same  manner  that  the  coast-line  of  Korea  bears  evi- 
dence of  the  adventurous  spirit  of  many  western  mari- 
ners, the  names  given  to  the  mountains  and  rivers  of  the 
country  by  the  inhabitants  themselves  reflect  the  sim- 
plicity, the  crudity,  and  the  superstition  of  their  ideas 
and  beliefs.  All  mountains  are  personified  In  Korea. 
In  the  popular  belief,  they  are  usually  associated  with 
dragons.  Every  village  offers  sacrifices  to  the  mountain- 
spirits.  Shrines  are  erected  by  the  wayside  and  In  the 
mountain  passes  that  travellers  may  tender  their  offer- 
ings to  the  spirits  and  secure  their  goodwill.  The  Ko- 
reans believe  that  the  mountains  In  some  way  exert  a 
benign  and  protecting  Influence.  The  capital  of  Korea 
possesses  Its  guardian-mountain.  Every  town  relies 
upon  some  preserving  power  to  maintain  its  existence. 
Graves,  too,  must  have  their  custodian  peaks,  or  the 

8 


OUTLINE   OF   HISTORY 

family  will  not  prosper,  and  the  Impression  prevails  that 
people  are  born  In  accordance  with  the  conformation  of 
the  hills  upon  which  the  tombs  of  their  ancestors  are 
situated.  Rough  and  rugged  contours  make  for  war- 
riors and  mlHtant  males.  Smooth  surfaces  and  gentle 
descents  beget  scholars;  peaks  of  singular  charm  and 
position  are  associated  with  beautiful  women.  Like  the 
mountain-ranges,  lakes  and  pools,  rivers  and  streams 
exercise  geomantic  powers,  and  they  are  the  abodes  of 
presiding  shades,  benevolent  or  pernicious.  In  lakes, 
there  are  dragons  and  lesser  monsters.  In  mountain 
pools,  however,  no  wraith  exists  unless  some  one  is 
drowned  In  the  waters  of  the  pool.  When  this  fatality 
occurs,  the  figure  of  the  dead  haunts  the  pool  until  re- 
leased by  the  ghost  of  the  next  person  who  meets  with 
this  misfortune.  The  serpent  Is  almost  synonymous 
with  the  dragon.  Certain  fish  become  In  time  fish-drag- 
ons; snakes  become  elevated  to  the  dignity  and  Imbued 
with  the  ferocity  of  dragons  when  they  have  spent  one 
thousand  years  in  the  captivity  of  the  mountains,  and 
one  thousand  years  in  the  water.  All  these  apparitions 
may  be  propitiated  with  sacrifices  and  prayers. 

In  the  province  of  Kang-won,  through  which  the 
ranges  of  the  Diamond  Mountains  pass,  there  are  sev- 
eral peaks  symbolical  of  this  belief  in  the  existence  of 
supernatural  monsters.  One  dizzy  height  is  named  the 
Yellow  Dragon,  a  second  the  Flying  Phoenix,  and  a 
third,  the  Hidden  Dragon,  has  reference  to  a  demon 
who  has  not  yet  risen  from  the  earth  upon  his  ascent  to 

9 


KOREA 

the  clouds.  The  names  which  the  Koreans  give  to  their 
rivers,  lakes  and  villages,  as  also  to  their  mountains, 
bear  out  their  wish  to  see  the  natural  beauties  of  their 
land  associated  with  its  more  distinctive  features.  This 
Idiosyncrasy,  however,  would  seem  to  be  exceptionally 
pronounced  in  the  case  of  mountains.  The  Mountain 
fronting  the  Moon,  the  Mountain  facing  the  Sun,  the 
Tranquil  Sea,  the  Valley  of  Cool  Shade,  and  the  Hill  of 
White  Clouds  emphasise  this  desire.  Again,  In  Ham- 
kyong,  the  most  northern  province  In  the  Empire,  the 
more  conspicuous  peaks  receive  such  designations  as  the 
Peak  of  Continuous  Virtue,  the  Peak  of  the  Thousand 
Buddhas,  the  Lasting  Peace,  the  Sword  Mountain, 
Heaven  Reaching  Peak,  the  Cloud  Toucher.  It  is  evi- 
dent, therefore,  that  appreciation  of  nature,  no  less  than 
reverence  for  the  supernatural,  underlies  the  system  by 
which  they  evolve  names  for  the  landmarks  of  their 
country.  The  peculiarities  of  their  land  afford  great 
scope  for  such  a  practice,  and  it  Is  to  be  admitted  that 
they  give  ample  vent  to  this  peculiar  trait  In  their  Imag- 
ination. 

Korea  Is  now  an  Independent  Empire.  From  very 
early  times  until  1895  the  King  of  Korea  was  a  vassal 
of  China,  but  the  complete  renunciation  of  the  authority 
of  the  Emperor  of  China  was  proclaimed  in  January, 
1895,  by  an  Imperial  decree.  This  was  the  fruit  of  the 
Chlno-Japanese  war,  and  It  was  ratified  by  China  under 
the  seal  of  the  treaty  of  peace  signed  at  ShImonosakI  In 
May  of  the  same  year.     The  monarchy  is  hereditary, 

10 


OUTLINE   OF    HISTORY 

and  the  present  dynasty  has  occupied  the  throne  of 
Korea  In  continuous  entail  since  1392.  Inhabited  by  a 
people  whose  traditions  and  history  extend  over  a  period 
of  five  thousand  years,  and  subjected  to  kaleidoscopic 
changes  whereby  smaller  tribes  were  absorbed  by  larger, 
and  weaker  governments  overthrown  by  stronger,  Korea 
has  gradually  evolved  one  kingdom,  which,  embracing 
all  units  under  her  own  protection,  has  presented  to  the 
world  through  centuries  a  more  or  less  composite  and 
stable  authority.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the 
whilom  vassal  of  China,  In  respect  of  which  China  and 
Japan  made  war,  has  taken  much  greater  strides  upon 
the  path  of  progress  than  her  ancient  neighbour  and 
liege  lord.  There  Is  no  question  of  the  superiority  of 
the  conditions  under  which  the  Koreans  In  Seoul  live 
and  those  prevailing  In  Pekin,  when  each  city  Is  regarded 
as  the  capital  of  Its  country — the  representative  centre 
in  which  all  that  Is  best  and  brightest  congregates. 

It  was  In  1876  that  Korea  made  her  first  modern 
treaty.  It  was  not  until  three  years  later  that  any  ex- 
change of  envoys  took  place  between  the  contracting 
party  and  herself.  Despite  the  treaty,  Korea  showed  no 
disposition  to  profit  by  the  existence  of  her  new  relations, 
until  the  opening  of  Chemulpo  to  trade  in  the  latter  part 
of  1883  revealed  to  her  the  commercial  advantages 
which  she  was  now  In  a  position  to  enjoy.  All  this 
time  China  had  been  In  Intercourse  with  foreigners.  Le- 
gations had  been  established  In  her  capital;  consuls  were 
in  charge  of  the  open  ports;  commercial  treaties  had 

II 


KOREA 

been  arranged.  She  was  already  old  and  uncanny  In 
the  wisdom  which  came  to  her  by  this  dealing  with  the 
people  of  Western  nations.  But,  In  a  spirit  of  perversity 
without  parallel  In  constitutional  history,  China  retired 
within  herself  to  such  a  degree  that  Japan,  within  one 
generation,  has  advanced  to  the  position  of  a  Great 
Power,  and  even  Korea  has  become,  within  twenty 
years,  the  superior  of  her  former  liege.  In  less  than  a 
decade  Korea  has  promoted  works  of  an  Industrial  or 
humanitarian  character  which  China,  at  the  present 
time.  Is  bitterly  and  fatally  opposing.  It  Is  true  that  the 
liberal  tendencies  of  Korea  have  been  stimulated  by 
association  with  the  Japanese.  Without  the  guiding 
hand  of  that  energetic  country  the  position  which  she 
would  enjoy  to-day  Is  Infinitely  problematical.  The  con- 
tact has  been  wholly  beneficial.  Its  continuation  forms 
the  strongest  guarantee  of  the  eventual  development  of 
the  resources  of  the  kingdom. 


12 


CHAPTER   II 

Physical  peculiarities — Direction  of  advancement — Indications 
of  reform  and  prosperity — Chemulpo — Population — 
Settlement — Trade 

KOREA  is  an  extremely  mountainous  country. 
Islands,  harbours,  and  mountains  are  its  most 
pronounced  natural  features,  and  nearly  the  whole  of 
the  coast  consists  of  the  slopes  of  the  various  mountain 
ranges  which  come  down  to  the  sea.  There  are  many 
patches  upon  the  west,  where  the  approaches  are  less 
precipitous  and  rugged  than  upon  the  east.  The  coast 
seems  to  follow  the  contour  of  the  mountains.  It  pre- 
sents, particularly  from  the  east,  that  lofty  and  inac- 
cessible barrier  of  forest-clad  country,  which  has  won 
the  admiration  of  all  navigators  and  struck  terror  into 
the  hearts  of  those  who  have  met  with  disaster  upon  Its 
barren  and  rocky  shores.  From  Paik-tu-san  to  WI-ju 
there  Is  one  mighty  and  natural  panorama  of  moun- 
tains with  snow-clad,  cloud-wrapped  summits,  and  beau- 
tiful valleys  with  rich  crops  and  quaintly  placed,  low- 
thatched  hovels,  through  which  rivers  course  like  angry 
silver.  Everywhere  In  the  north  the  mountains  pre- 
dominate; monstrous  In  shape  and  size.  They  are  rich 
in  minerals;  they  have  become  sepulchres  for  the  dead 
and  mines  for  the  living — for  In  their  keeping  lies  the 
wealth  of  the  ages,  coal  and  iron  and  gold;  upon  their 

13 


KOREA 

summits,  resting  beneath  the  sky  or  within  some  nook 
hewn  from  their  rugged  slopes,  are  the  graves  of  the 
dead.  Mining  and  agriculture  are  almost  the  sole  natu- 
ral resources  of  the  kingdom.  There  are  great  possibil- 
ities, however.  In  the  awakening  energies  and  Instincts 
of  the  people,  which  may  lead  them  to  create  markets 
of  their  own  by  growing  more  than  suffices  for  their 
immediate  requirements.  As  yet,  notwithstanding  the 
improvements  which  have  been  inaugurated,  and  the  In- 
dustrial schemes  which  the  government  has  introduced, 
the  reform  movement  lacks  cohesion.  Indeed  the  na- 
tion Is  without  ambition.  But  the  prospect  Is  hopeful. 
Already  something  has  been  accomplished  in  the  right 
direction. 

At  present,  however,  Korea  is  in  a  state  of  transition. 
Everything  is  undefined  and  Indetermined;  the  past  is 
in  ruins,  the  present  and  the  future  are  in  the  rough. 
Reforms  are  scarce  a  decade  old,  and,  while  many 
abuses  have  been  redressed,  the  reform  movement  suf- 
fers for  lack  of  support,  comprehension,  and  toleration. 
The  aspirations  of  the  few  are  extending  but  slowly  to 
the  nation.  Progress  is  gradual  and  the  Interval  Is 
tedious.  The  commercial  phase  of  the  movement  Is  full 
of  vitality,  and  the  factories  which  have  been  established 
show  the  evolution  of  enterprise  from  aspiration. 
Foreigners  are  introducing  education,  while  the  present 
commercial  activities  are  attributable  to  their  suggestion 
and  assistance.  The  small  response,  which  these  efforts 
elicit,  make  the  labour  of  keeping  the  nation  In  the  right 

14 


REFORM   AND    PROSPERITY 

direction  very  difficult.  The  people  can  scarcely  relapse 
Into  the  conservatism  of  ancient  days,  but  they  may  col- 
lapse altogether,  owing  to  the  unfortunate  circumstances 
which  are  now  making  Korea  an  object  of  Ironical  and 
Interested  observation  among  the  Western  Powers.  She 
may  be  absorbed,  annexed,  or  divided;  In  endeavouring 
to  remain  Independent,  she  may  wreck  herself  In  the  gen- 
eral anarchy  that  may  overtake  her.  She  has  given 
much  promise.  She  has  constituted  a  Customs  service, 
joined  In  the  Postal  Union  and  opened  her  ports.  She 
has  admitted  railways  and  telegraphs,  and  shown  kind- 
ness, consideration  and  hospitality  to  every  condition  of 
foreigner  within  her  gates.  Her  confidence  has  been 
that  of  a  child  and  her  faults  are  those  of  the  nursery. 
She  Is  so  old  and  yet  so  Infinitely  young ;  and,  by  a  curi- 
ous fatality,  she  Is  now  face  to  face  with  a  situation 
which  again  and  again  has  occurred  in  her  past  history. 
The  Introduction  of  Western  inventions  to  Korea  has 
gradually  eliminated  from  contemporary  Korean  life 
many  customs  which,  associated  with  the  people  and 
their  traditions  from  time  immemorial,  imparted  much 
of  the  repose  and  picturesqueness  which  have  so  far  dis- 
tinguished the  little  kingdom.  Korea,  in  the  twentieth 
century,  bears  ample  evidence  of  the  forward  movement 
which  is  stimulating  its  people.  Once  the  least  pro- 
gressive of  the  countries  of  the  Far  East,  she  now  af- 
fords an  exception  almost  as  noticeable  as  that  shown 
by  the  prompt  assimilation  of  Western  ideas  and  meth- 
ods by  Japan.     Chemulpo,  however,  the  centre  In  which 

15 


KOREA 

an  Important  foreign  settlement  and  open  port  have 
sprung  up,  does  not  suggest  in  Itself  the  completeness 
of  the  transformation  which  In  a  few  years  has  taken 
place  In  the  capital.  It  Is  twenty  years  since  Chemulpo 
was  opened  to  foreign  trade,  and  to-day  it  boasts  a  mag- 
nificent bund,  wide  streets,  Imposing  shops,  and  a  train 
service  which  connects  It  with  the  capital.  Its  sky  is 
threaded  with  a  maze  of  telephone  and  telegraph  wire, 
there  are  several  hotels  conducted  upon  Western  princi- 
ples, and  there  Is,  also,  an  International  club. 

At  the  threshold  of  the  new  century,  the  port  presents 
an  interesting  study.  With  the  adjoining  Ha-do,  a  ham- 
let of  military  pretensions.  It  has  grown  in  the  twenty 
years  of  its  existence  from  a  cluster  of  fishermen's  huts 
behind  a  hill  along  the  river  at  Man-sak-dong  into  a 
prosperous  cosmopolitan  centre  of  twenty  thousand  peo- 
ple. Its  growth,  since  the  first  treaty  was  negotiated 
with  the  West  upon  May  22,  1882,  by  the  American 
Admiral  Shufeldt,  has  been  extraordinary.  Its  earlier 
years  gave  no  promise  of  its  rapid  and  significant  ad- 
vance. Trade  has  flourished,  and  a  boom  in  the  trade 
of  the  port  has  sent  up  the  value  of  local  properties. 
There  Is  now  danger  of  a  decline  in  this  state  of  affluence 
which  may.  In  view  of  the  chaos  and  uncertainty  of  the 
future  of  the  kingdom,  retard  the  settlement  and  dis- 
astrously affect  its  present  prosperity.  From  small  and 
uncertain  beginnings  four  well-built,  well-lighted  settle- 
ments have  sprung  up,  expanding  Into  a  general  foreign, 
a  Japanese,  a  Chinese,  and  a  Korean  quarter.     The 

16 


CHEMULPO 

Japanese  section  is  the  best  located  and  the  most  promis- 
ing. The  interests  of  this  particular  nation  are  also  the 
most  prominent  in  the  export  and  import  trade  of  the 
port,  a  position  which  is  emphasised  still  further  by  the 
Important  nature  of  its  vested  interests,  among  which 
the  railroad  between  Seoul,  the  capital,  and  Chemulpo, 
with  the  trunk  extension  to  Fusan,  is  paramount.  The 
Japanese  population  increased  by  nearly  five  hundred 
during  1 90 1 .  It  then  numbered  some  four  thousand  six 
hundred,  of  whom  a  few  hundred  were  soldiers  consti- 
tuting a  temporary  garrison  for  the  settlement.  How- 
ever, since  the  modification  by  the  Japanese  Govern- 
ment of  the  emigration  laws  with  reference  to  China 
and  Korea,  under  which,  in  the  first  weeks  of  1902,  the 
necessity  for  travelling  passports  was  abolished  in  the 
case  of  these  two  countries,  there  has  been  a  great  In- 
crease in  the  number  of  Japanese  residents  at  the  treaty 
ports.  The  settlement  at  Chemulpo  now  embraces  one 
thousand  two  hundred  and  eighty-two  houses,  and  pos- 
sesses a  population  of  five  thousand  nine  hundred  and 
seventy-three  adults.  The  census  of  the  Chinese  settle- 
ment fluctuates  with  the  season;  considerable  numbers 
of  farmers  cross  from  Shan-tung  to  Korea  during  the 
summer,  returning  to  their  native  land  In  winter.  In 
the  period  of  exodus  from  China,  the  Chinese  popula- 
tion exceeds  twelve  hundred.  The  complete  strength  of 
the  general  foreign  settlement  Is  eighty-six,  of  which 
some  twenty-nine  are  British.  The  one  British  firm  in 
Korea  Is  established  in  Chemulpo. 

17 


KOREA 

There  are  many  nationalities  in  Chemulpo,  and  the 
small  community,  excluding  the  Japanese  and  Chinese,  is 
made  up  as  follows:  British,  twenty-nine  and  one  firm, 
the  remaining  twenty-eight  being  attached  to  the  Vice- 
Consulate,  the  Customs,  and  a  missionary  society;  Amer- 
ican, eight  and  two  firms ;  French,  six  and  one  firm ;  Ger- 
man, sixteen  and  one  firm;  Italian,  seven  and  one  firm; 
Russian,  four  and  two  firms ;  Greek,  two  and  one  firm ; 
Portuguese  seven,  Hungarian  five,  and  Dutch  two,  the 
last  three  possessing  no  firms  in  the  port. 

If  British  interests  are  not  materially  represented  in 
Chemulpo,  other  nationalities  are  less  backward.  By 
means  of  the  Trans-Siberian  Railway,  the  journey  from 
London  to  Chemulpo  can  now  be  accomplished  within 
twenty-one  days.  When  the  Seoul-Fusan  Railway  is 
finished,  communication  between  the  East  and  the  West 
will  be  still  further  facilitated.  It  is  intended  that  less 
than  two  days  shall  sufl^ce  for  the  connection  between 
Chemulpo  and  Tokio.  Meanwhile  the  service  of  the 
Chinese  Eastern  Railway  Company's  steamers  between 
Port  Arthur,  Dalny  and  Chemulpo  has  been  accelerated. 
In  addition,  also,  imposing  new  offices  have  been  erected 
at  the  port.  It  is  much  to  be  regretted  that  there  is  no 
regular  service  of  British  steamers  to  the  ports  of 
Korea.  In  singular  contrast  to  the  apathy  of  British 
steamship  companies  is  the  action  of  the  Hamburg- 
America  Company,  which  has  now  arranged  for  the 
periodic  visits  of  its  steamers  to  Chemulpo.  From  a 
commercial  standpoint  the  port  has  become  an  impor- 

i8 


CHEMULPO 

tant  distributing  centre.  Foreign  trade  with  the  capital 
and  its  environs  passes  through  It,  and  the  administra- 
tive officers  of  the  more  important  gold-mining  conces- 
sions, of  which  there  are  now  four,  American,  Japanese, 
French,  and  British,  have  settled  there.  A  cigarette  fac- 
tory, supported  by  the  Government,  is  now  In  operation 
in  the  port.  During  1901  ninety-three  men-of-war  en- 
tered Chemulpo,  of  which  thirty-five  were  Japanese, 
twenty-one  English,  fifteen  Russian,  eleven  French,  five 
Austrian,  four  German,  one  Italian,  and  one  American. 
Of  steamers  and  sailing-vessels  there  were  1036,  of 
which  567  were  Japanese  with  304  steamers,  3 69  Korean 
junks  and  steamers,  twenty-one  Russian  steamers,  eight 
American  sailing-ships  and  one  American  steamer,  four 
English  steamers,  three  German  steamers,  sixty-two 
Chinese  junks,  and  one  Norwegian  steamer — forty- 
seven  more  men-of-war  and  seventy  more  merchant  ves- 
sels than  In  1900.  The  shipping  which  entered  and 
cleared  at  the  port  during  1900  was  370,416  tons,  real- 
ising a  small  increase  upon  previous  years;  of  these,  500 
steamers  with  287,082  tonnage  were  Japanese,  261 
steamers  with  45,516  tons  were  Korean,  forty-one 
steamers  of  27,999  ^^^^  Russian,  two  steamers  of  4416 
tons  British,  four  steamers  of  2918  tons  German.  The 
complete  return  of  all  shipping  entered  at  the  open  ports 
of  Korea  during  the  year  1902 — the  latest  under  review 
— Is  added  as  a  separate  table  at  the  end  of  this  book. 

In  Chemulpo,  as  in  all  the  ports  of  the  kingdom  which 
are  open  to  foreign  trade,  there  is  a  branch  of  the  Im- 

19 


KOREA 

perlal  Korean  Maritime  Customs,  an  offshoot  of  the  ex- 
cellent service  which  exists  In  China  under  the  adminis- 
tration of  Sir  Robert  Hart.  The  working  of  the 
Korean  Customs,  for  which  Mr.  McLeavy  Brown  is 
primarily  responsible,  Is  singularly  successful,  and  re- 
dounds greatly  to  the  credit  of  the  comptrolling  power. 
In  an  epoch  characterised  by  the  extraordinary  Inepti- 
tude, indifference,  and  weakness  of  our  public  men,  it 
is  much  to  be  deplored  that  the  services  of  this  distin- 
guished Englishman  are  not  more  directly  dedicated  to 
the  needs  of  his  country.  The  careers  of  these  two  ad- 
mirable officials  fill  me  with  mingled  regret  for  the  re- 
moteness of  their  sphere  of  action,  and  high  apprecia- 
tion of  their  unremitting  zeal — feelings  few  public 
servants  may  more  fitly  inspire  than  these  two  isolated, 
hardworking  chiefs  of  a  sister  service,  whose  work,  car- 
ried on  in  an  atmosphere  of  treachery  and  deceit,  too 
often  meets  with  the  blackest  ingratitude. 

The  advance  which  the  trade  of  Korea  has  made  is 
proof  sufficient  of  its  innate  possibilities  under  honest 
administration.  If  the  revenues  of  the  Customs  are  not 
diverted  in  the  meantime  to  less  important  objects,  there 
is  every  hope  to  believe  that  facilities  will  be  given  to 
its  development.  The  Emperor  has  lately  sanctioned 
the  grant  of  one  million  yen  from  the  Customs  revenue 
for  the  provision  of  aids  to  navigation.  Thirty-one 
lighthouses  are  to  be  built;  the  two  earliest  being  placed 
upon  Roze  and  Round  Islands  off  the  entrance  to  the 
Han  river,  upon  which  Chemulpo  lies.    When  this  work 

20 


TRADE 

Is  accomplished,  the  increase  of  shipping  in  the  harbour 
is  sure  to  create  some  sympathetic  development  In  the 
resources  of  the  country. 

The  net  value  for  1901  of  the  combined  export  and 
Import  direct  foreign  trade  throughout  the  kingdom, 
exclusive  of  gold  export,  was  more  than  twenty-three 
million  (23,158,419)  yen,  the  value  of  the  gold  export 
being  a  little  In  excess  of  four  million  (4,993,351) 
yen.  The  exchange  rate  of  the  Japanese  yen  Is  roughly 
two  shillings  and  a  half-penny,  which  gives  the  com- 
bined values  of  the  total  foreign  trade  as  2,873,827 
pounds  sterling.  The  trade  of  Chemulpo  during  this 
time  was  11,131,060  yen,  being  an  Increase  of  nearly 
one  million  yen  upon  the  trade  returns  of  the  last  three 
years.  The  exports  were  gold,  rice,  beans,  timber  and 
hides;  the  Imports  comprised  American  and  Japanese 
goods  for  the  most  part,  and  a  small  and  decreasing 
trade  with  England.  The  total  foreign  Imports  reached 
a  value  of  5,573,398  yen,  and  the  total  exports  were 
4,311,401  yen.  The  returns  for  the  year  following, 
1902,  were.  In  brief:  exports,  £269,747;  Imports,  £814,- 
470.  Foreign  Interests  In  the  total  trade  passing  through 
Chemulpo,  In  comparison  with  those  since  1891,  show 
a  great  and  steady  advance.  The  total  revenue  for 
1 89 1  was  a  little  less  than  300,000  yen,  and  In  the  year 
1900  this  sum  had  advanced  to  more  than  550,000  yen, 
the  Increase  In  the  general  prosperity  during  these  years 
correspondingly  affecting  the  total  revenue  of  the  king- 
dom. 

21 


KOREA 

Compared  with  1901  there  was  a  falHng-off  in  the 
total  trade  of  the  country  for  the  year  1902.  In  1902 
the  entire  foreign  trade  amounted  to  £2,745,346  ster- 
hng,  which  was  composed  as  follows: 


Imports. 

Exports. 

Exports  of  Gold, 

£ 

£ 

£ 

1,382,351 

846,034 

516,961 

The  balance  of  trade  was  against  Korea,  therefore,  to 
the  extent  of  only  £16,356  sterling,  whereas  the  average 
excess  of  imports  over  exports  for  the  past  five  years  was 
£107,309.  Only  in  1900  were  the  exports  greater  than 
the  imports.  The  average  of  trade  for  the  past  five 
years  was  £2,370,075  sterling,  a  return  which  in  reality 
credits  the  year  1902  with  £378,271  more  than  the  aver- 
age. As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  month  of  December  1902 
showed  a  larger  volume  of  trade  and  more  duty  col- 
lected at  Chemulpo  than  ever  before.  Specifically,  in 
comparison  with  the  previous  year,  the  imports  of  1902 
were  less  In  the  amount  of  £117,914,  while  exports  had 
declined  £7567.  Large  stocks  were  carried  over  from 
1 90 1,  hence  some  depreciation  in  the  volume  of  the 
trade  was  inevitable.  However,  for  the  better  compre- 
hension of  the  economic  relations  of  Korea  with  the 
trade  of  foreign  countries,  I  have  collected  the  returns 
of  the  years,  with  which  I  have  dealt  here,  in  one  simple 
table,  to  which  is  added  a  quinquennial  average,  cover- 
ing a  period  which  begins  with  the  year  1898. 


22 


CHAPTER    III 

Move  to  the  capital — A  city  of  peace-^Results  of  foreign 
influence — In  the  beginning — Education — Shops — Cos- 
tume— Origin — Posts  and  telegraphs — Methods  of  clean- 
liness 

THE  Situation  in  which  Seoul  lies  is  enchanting. 
High  hills  and  mountains  rise  close  to  the  city, 
their  sides  rough,  rugged  and  bleak,  save  where  black 
patches  of  bushes  and  trees  struggle  for  existence.  The 
hollows  within  this  rampart  of  hills  and  beyond  the 
walls,  are  fresh  and  verdant.  Small  rice-fields,  with 
clusters  of  thatched  hovels  in  their  midst,  stretch  be- 
tween the  capital  and  the  port  at  Chemulpo.  The  at- 
mosphere is  clear;  the  air  is  sweet;  the  city  is  neat  and 
orderly.  It  is  possible,  moreover,  to  live  with  great 
comfort  in  the  three-storied  brick  structure,  which,  from 
a  pretty  collection  of  Korean  buildings,  nestling  be- 
neath the  city  wall,  has  been  converted  into  the  Station 
Hotel. 

There  is  but  one  wall  round  Seoul.  It  is  neither  so 
high  nor  so  massive  as  the  wall  of  Peking;  yet  the  situa- 
tion of  the  city  gains  so  much  in  beauty  from  the  en- 
closing mountains,  that  it  seems  to  be  much  the  more 
picturesque.     If  the  capital  of  Korea  is  more  charm- 

23 


KOREA 

ingly  situated  than  the  capital  of  China,  the  wall  of 
Seoul  is  reminiscent  of  the  walls  of  the  Nankow  Pass 
in  the  superb  disdain  with  which  it  clings  to  the  edges 
of  the  mountains,  climbing  the  most  outlandish  places 
'  in  the  course  of  its  almost  purposeless  meanderings.  It 
extends  beyond  the  lofty  crests  of  Peuk-an  and  across 
the  splendid  and  Isolated  peak  of  Nam-san,  enclosing  a 
forest  In  one  direction,  a  vacant  and  soulless  plain  in 
another,  dropping  here  Into  a  ravine,  to  emerge  again 
a  few  hundred  feet  higher  on  the  mountain  slopes.  The 
wall  Is  In  good  preservation.  In  places  It  is  a  rampart 
of  mud  faced  with  masonry ;  more  generally  It  Is  a  solid 
structure  of  stone,  fourteen  miles  in  circumference, 
twenty-five  to  forty  feet  In  height,  battlemented  along 
its  entire  length  and  pierced  by  eight  arches  of  stone. 
The  arches  serve  as  gateways;  they  are  crowned  with 
high  tiled  towers,  the  gables  of  which  curve  In  the 
fashion  of  China. 

Within  the  radius  of  these  stone  walls,  the  city 
spreads  Itself  across  a  plain,  or  high  on  the  mountain 
side,  within  the  snug  shelter  of  some  hollow,  enjoys  a 
pleasant,  cool  and  comfortable  seclusion.  Within  its 
metropolitan  area  there  are  changes  of  scenery  which 
would  delight  the  most  weary  sightseer.  Beyond  these 
limits,  the  appearance  and  character  of  the  country  is 
refreshing,  and  Is  without  that  monotonous  dead-level 
stretch  of  plain,  which,  reaching  to  the  walls  of  Pekin, 
detracts  so  greatly  from  the  position  of  that  capital. 
Within  this  broader  vista  there  are  hills  and  wooded 

24 


MOVE   TO   THE   CAPITAL 

valleys.  Villages  rest  beneath  the  grey,  cool  shadows 
of  the  bush.  Upon  the  hills  lie  many  stately  tombs, 
fringes  of  trees  shielding  them  from  the  rush  of  the 
winds.  There  are  pretty  walks  or  rides  In  every  quar- 
ter, and  there  is  no  fear  of  molestation.  Everywhere 
it  is  peaceful ;  foreigners  pass  unnoticed  by  the  peasants, 
who,  lazily  scratching  the  surface  of  their  fields,  or 
ploughing  in  the  water  of  their  rice  plots  with  stately 
bulls,  occupy  their  time  with  gentle  Industry.  It  is  more 
by  reason  of  a  bountiful  nature  that  has  endowed  their 
land  with  fertility,  than  by  careful  management  or  ex- 
penditure of  energy  that  it  serves  their  purpose. 

A  few  years  ago  It  was  thought  that  the  glory  of  the 
ancient  city  had  departed.  Indeed,  the  extreme  state 
of  neglect  into  which  the  capital  had  fallen  gave  some 
justification  for  this  opinion.  Now,  however,  the  pros- 
pect is  suggestive  of  prosperity.  The  old  order  is  giv- 
ing way  to  the  new.  So  quickly  has  the  population 
learned  to  appreciate  the  results  of  foreign  intercourse 
that.  In  a  few  more  years,  It  will  be  difficult  to  find  in 
Seoul  any  remaining  link  with  the  capital  of  yore.  The 
changes  have  been  somewhat  radical.  The  Introduction 
of  telegraphy  has  made  It  unnecessary  to  signal  nightly 
the  safety  of  the  kingdom  by  beacons  from  the  crests 
of  the  mountains.  The  gates  are  no  longer  closed  at 
night;  no  more  does  the  evening  bell  clang  sonorously 
throughout  the  city  at  sunset,  and  the  runners  before 
the  chairs  of  the  officials  have  for  some  time  ceased  to 
announce  In  strident  voices  the  passing  of  their  masters. 

25 


KOREA 

Improvements,  which  have  been  wrought  also  In  the 
conditions  of  the  city — In  its  streets  and  houses,  In  its 
sanitary  measures  and  In  Its  methods  of  communication 
— have  replaced  these  ancient  customs.  An  excellent 
and  rapid  train  runs  from  Chemulpo;  electric  trams 
afford  quick  transit  within  and  beyond  the  capital;  even 
electric  lights  Illuminate  by  night  some  parts  of  the 
chief  city  of  the  Hermit  Kingdom.  Moreover,  an 
aqueduct  Is  mentioned;  the  police  force  has  been  reor- 
ganised; drains  have  come  and  evil  odours  have  fled. 
The  population  of  the  capital  for  the  year  1903  was 
194,000  adults.  This  is  a  decrease  of  2546  upon  the 
year  1902. 

The  period  which  has  passed  since  the  country  was 
opened  to  foreign  trade  has  given  the  Inhabitants  time 
to  become  accustomed  to  the  peculiar  differences  which 
distinguish  foreigners.  It  has  afforded  Koreans  count- 
less opportunities  to  select  for  themselves  such  Institu- 
tions as  may  be  calculated  to  promote  their  own  welfare, 
and  to  provide  at  the  same  time  compensating  advan- 
tages for  their  departure  from  tradition.  Not  only  by 
the  construction  of  an  electric  tramway,  the  provision 
of  long-distance  telephones  and  telegraphs,  the  Installa- 
tion of  electric  light,  a  general  renovation  of  Its  thor- 
oughfares and  Its  buildings,  and  the  Improvement  of 
Its  system  of  drainage,  does  the  capital  of  Korea  give 
tokens  of  the  spirit  which  Is  at  work  amongst  Its  In- 
habitants. Reforms  In  education  have  also  taken  place ; 
schools  and  hospitals  have  been  opened;  banks,  foreign 

26 


A   CITY   OF    PEACE 

shops  and  agencies  have  sprung  up;  a  factory  for  the 
manufacture  of  porcelain  ware  Is  In  operation;  and  the 
number  and  variety  of  the  religions  with  which  foreign 
missionaries  are  wooing  the  people  are  as  amazing  and 
complex  as  In  China.  There  will  be  no  absence  In  the 
future  of  those  soothing  conjectures  from  which  the 
consolations  of  religion  may  be  derived.  The  conduct 
of  educational  affairs  Is  arranged  upon  a  basis  which 
now  gives  every  facility  for  the  study  of  foreign  sub- 
jects. Special  schools  for  foreign  languages,  conducted 
by  the  Government  under  the  supervision  of  foreign 
teachers,  have  been  instituted.  Indeed,  most  striking 
changes  have  been  made  in  the  curriculum  of  the  com- 
mon schools  of  the  city.  Mathematics,  geography,  his- 
tory, besides  foreign  languages,  are  all  subjects  in  the 
courses  of  these  establishments,  and,  only  lately,  a 
special  School  of  Survey,  under  foreign  direction,  has 
been  opened.  The  enlightenment,  which  is  thus  spread- 
ing throughout  the  lower  classes,  cannot  fail  to  secure 
some  eventual  modification  of  the  views  and  sentiments 
by  which  the  upper  classes  regard  the  progress  of  the 
country.  As  a  sign  of  the  times.  It  is  worthy  to  note 
that  several  native  newspapers  have  been  started ;  while 
the  increase  of  business  has  created  the  necessity  for  Im- 
proved facilities  in  financial  transactions,  a  development 
which  has  appealed  not  only  to  the  Dai  IchI  Ginko. 
The  Russo-Chlnese  Bank  Is  proposing  to  contend  with 
this  Japanese  financial  house.  The  establishment  at 
Chemulpo  of  a  branch  of  the  Russian  Bank  is  con- 

27 


KOREA 

templated,  from  whence  will  come  an  issue  of  rouble 
notes  to  compete  with  the  various  denominations  of  the 
Japanese  Bank.  Moreover,  the  Government  is  prepar- 
ing to  erect  a  large  building  in  foreign  style  In  the  cen- 
tre of  the  city,  to  be  used  as  the  premises  of  the  Cen^ 
tral  Bank  of  Korea.  It  will  be  a  three-storied  building, 
and  it  is  intended  to  establish  branches  in  all  the  thir- 
teen provinces  of  the  Empire.  Its  chief  aim  is  to  facili- 
tate the  transfer  of  Government  moneys,  the  transport 
of  which  has  always  been  a  severe  tax  upon  the  Gov- 
ernment. It  will,  however,  engage  in  general  banking 
business,  and  for  this  purpose  Yi  Yong-ik,  the  President 
of  the  Central  Bank,  is  preparing  at  the  Government 
mint  one,  fivey  ten  and  one  hundred  dollar  bills  for  issue 
by  it. 

Along  with  these  objects,  the  postal  and  telegraph 
service  has  received  no  little  attention.  Up  to  the  year 
1883  Korea  was  without  telegraphic  communication. 
At  that  time  the  Japanese  laid  a  submarine  cable  from 
Nagasaki  to  the  Korean  port  of  Fusan  with  an  inter- 
mediate station  upon  the  island  of  Tsu-shima.  A  little 
later,  in  1885,  China,  taking  advantage  of  her  suzerain 
rights,  deputed  Mr.  J.  H.  Muhlensteth,  a  telegraph 
engineer  who  had  been  in  her  service  many  years  and 
who  formerly  had  been  an  employe  of  the  Danish 
Telegraph  System,  to  construct  a  land  telegraph  line 
from  Chemulpo  by  way  of  Seoul  and  Pyong-yang  to 
Wi-ju  on  the  Yalu  River  opposite  the  Chinese  frontier 
post  of  An-tung,  which  had  connection  with  the  general 

28 


A   CITY   OF   PEACE 

system  of  Chinese  telegraphs.  This  line  toward  the 
north-west  was  for  many  years  the  only  means  of  tele- 
graphic communication  between  the  capital  of  Korea 
and  the  outside  world.  It  was  worked  at  the  expense 
and  under  the  control  of  the  Chinese  Government,  and 
it  was  not  until  the  time  of  the  Chlno-Japanese  war,  in 
the  course  of  which  the  line  was  almost  entirely  de- 
stroyed, that  it  was  reconstructed  by  the  Korean  Gov- 
ernment. 

In  1889  the  Korean  Government  built  a  line  from 
Seoul  to  Fusan.  After  the  Chino- Japanese  war,  tele- 
graphic communication  was  extended  from  Seoul  to 
Won-san  and  Mok-po.  During  recent  years  continu- 
ous progress  has  been  made  until  the  total  development 
in  the  interior  has  now  reached  3500  kilometres,  di- 
vided into  twenty-seven  bureaux  and  employing  113  men 
as  directors,  engineers,  secretaries,  and  operators,  with 
303  as  students.  The  Morse  system  is  in  use.  The 
electricity  is  generated  by  the  use  of  the  Leclanche 
batteries.  Telegrams  may  be  sent  either  in  the  native 
Korean  script.  In  Chinese,  or  In  the  code  used  by  the 
Chinese  administration,  and  in  the  different  foreign  lan- 
guages authorised  by  the  International  Telegraph 
Agreement.  Horse  relays  are  kept  at  the  different  tele- 
graph centres  In  the  interior  to  facilitate  communication 
with  points  far  distant. 

The  subjoined  table  reveals  by  comparison  the  de- 
velopment In  the  Korean  system  of  telegraphs  which 
has  taken  place  during  recent  years: 

29 


KOREA 


1899 

1900 

1901 

1902 

Telegrams 

112,450 

125,410 

152,485 

209,418 

Revenue 

$50,686.89 

$72,443.26 

$86,830.86 

$112,337.18 

Length  of  lines . 

in  // 

5000 

5090 

6510 

7060 

Offices 

19 

22 

27 

27 

The  establishment  of  the  Imperial  Postal  System  in 
Korea  is  comparatively  recent.  For  many  years,  in  fact 
for  many  centuries,  Korea  has  possessed  no  postal  ser- 
vice as  we  conceive  of  it.  An  official  courier  service  was 
maintained  by  the  King  in  order  to  carry  on  corre- 
spondence with  the  different  provincial  governors. 
These  messengers  travelled  by  horse  relays,  which  were 
maintained  at  various  points  in  the  country.  Private 
correspondence  was  carried  on  through  the  medium  of 
travellers  or  pedlars,  the  sender  having  to  arrange 
privately  with  the  carrier  in  each  instance.  In  1877, 
Japan,  who  had  entered  the  Postal  Union  and  had  con- 
cluded a  treaty  with  Korea,  established  postal  bureaux 
at  Fusan,  Won-san  and  Chemulpo  for  the  needs  of  her 
nationals,  who  were  already  quite  numerous  In  Korea. 
In  1882  the  Customs  Administration  also  established  a 
sort  of  postal  system  between  the  different  open  ports 
and  between  Korea  and  China.  But  these  organisa- 
tions were  limited  to  correspondence  between  open 
ports,  and  whoever  wished  to  send  a  letter  Into  the  In- 
terior had  to  make  private  arrangements.  In  1884  the 
Government  of  Korea  made  a  first  attempt  to  establish 

30 


A   CITY   OF   PEACE 

an  official  postal  system  which  would  be  accessible 
to  all. 

It  was  not  until  1895,  however,  after  the  close  of  the 
Chino-Japanese  war,  that  the  Korean  Postal  Service 
was  at  last  established  under  the  direction  of  a  Japan- 
ese. For  several  years  this  service  was  confined  to 
Korea  herself,  and  did  not  undertake  any  foreign  busi- 
ness. In  1897  the  Korean  Government  determined  to 
join  the  Postal  Union,  and  to  this  end  two  representa- 
tives were  sent  to  the  Universal  Postal  Congress,  held 
at  Washington  in  May  and  June  of  that  year.  They 
signed  the  international  agreement.  Finally,  in  1898, 
the  Government  secured  the  services  of  M.  E.  Clemen- 
cet,  a  member  of  the  Postal  and  Telegraph  Bureau  of 
France,  as  adviser  and  instructor  to  the  Postal  Bureau, 
and  on  January  i,  1900,  Korea  entered  the  Postal 
Union. 

The  Service  comprises,  in  addition  to  the  central 
bureau  at  Seoul,  thirty-seven  postal  stations,  in  full 
operation,  and  326  sub-stations  open  to  the  exchange  of 
ordinary  or  registered  correspondence,  whether  domes- 
tic or  foreign.  Seven  hundred  and  forty-seven  letter 
boxes  have  been  distributed  throughout  postal  circuits 
in  charge  of  these  stations.  Only  the  stations  in  full 
operation  are  carried  on  by  agents  or  sub-agents  under 
the  control  of  the  Director-General  of  Communications 
to  the  number  of  756,  of  which  114  are  agents  and 
secretaries,  and  642  are  couriers,  watchmen,  etc.  The 
management  of  secondary  offices  is  in  the  hands  of 

31 


KOREA 

local  country  magistrates  under  the  control  of  the  Min- 
istry of  the  Interior,  and  has  no  connection  with  the  De- 
partment of  Communications  except  in  so  far  as  the 
control  and  management  of  the  postal  system  is  di- 
rectly affected.  A  network  of  land  postal  routes,  start- 
ing out  from  Seoul  along  the  seven  main  highways,  is 
run  daily  in  both  directions  by  postal  couriers.  Each 
of  the  large  country  offices  controls  a  courier  service, 
which,  in  turn,  connects  with  the  smaller  country  offices. 
These  secondary  offices  are  served  three  times  a  week 
by  unmounted  postal  couriers,  who  number  in  all  472 
men.  Each  man  carries  on  his  back  a  maximum  load 
of  twenty  kilogrammes.  When  the  mail  matter  ex- 
ceeds this  limit  extra  men  or  pack  horses  are  employed. 
The  courier  has  to  cover  daily  a  minimum  distance  of 
forty  kilometres.  In  central  Korea  and  in  the  south 
and  the  north-west  each  route  is  covered,  back  and 
forth,  in  five  days.  In  the  north  and  north-east  eight 
days  are  required  for  each  round  trip. 

Besides  these  land  courier  services  the  Postal  ad- 
ministration has  employed,  since  Korea  joined  the 
Postal  Union,  various  maritime  services  for  forwarding 
mail  matter  to  the  different  Korean  ports  and  for  the 
despatch  of  foreign  mail.  The  different  steamship 
companies  which  carry  Korean  mail  are:  The  Nippon 
Yusen  Kaisha,  whose  boats  touch  at  Kobe,  Nagasaki, 
Fusan,  Mok-po  (occasionally),  Chemulpo,  Chi-fu, 
Taku,  Won-san  and  Vladivostock.  The  Osaka  Chosen 
Kaisha  boats,  which  touch  at  Fusan,  Ma-san-po,  Mok- 

32 


SHOPS 

po,  Kun-san,  Chemulpo  and  Chln-am-po.  The  last  port 
IS  closed  by  Ice  from  December  to  March.  The  Chi- 
nese Eastern  Railway  Company,  whose  boats  ply  be- 
tveen  Vladlvostock  and  Shanghai  by  way  of  Nagasaki, 
Chemulpo,  Port  Arthur,  and  Chl-fu,  are  also  utilised. 
The  man  who  did  so  much  to  make  a  success  of  the 
Korean  Customs  has  also  effected  the  wonderful  repairs 
of  the  capital.  The  new  Seoul  Is  scarcely  seven  years 
old,  but  Mr.  McLeavy  Brown  and  the  Civil  Governor, 
an  energetic  Korean  official,  since  transferred,  began, 
and  concluded  within  four  weeks,  the  labour  of  cleans- 
ing and  reconstructing  the  slimy  and  narrow  quarters  in 
which  so  many  people  lived.  To  those,  who  knew  the 
former  state  of  the  city,  the  task  must  have  appeared 
Gargantuan.  Nevertheless,  an  extraordinary  meta- 
morphosis was  achieved.  Old  Seoul,  with  its  festering 
alleys,  its  winter  accumulations  of  every  species  of  filth, 
its  plastering  mud  and  penetrating  foulness,  has  almost 
totally  vanished  from  within  the  walls  of  the  capital. 
The  streets  are  magnificent,  spacious,  clean,  admirably 
made  and  well  drained.  The  narrow,  dirty  lanes  have 
been  widened ;  gutters  have  been  covered,  and  roadways 
broadened ;  until,  with  Its  trains,  its  cars,  and  its  lights, 
Its  miles  of  telegraph  lines,  its  Railway  Station  Hotel, 
brick  houses  and  glass  windows,  Seoul  is  within  meas- 
urable distance  of  becoming  the  highest,  most  interest- 
ing, and  cleanest  city  in  the  East.  It  Is  still  not  one 
whit  Europeanised,  for  the  picturesqueness  of  the  purely 
Korean  principles  and  standards  of  architecture   has 

33 


KOREA 

been  religiously  maintained,  and  is  to  be  observed  in  all 
future  improvements. 

The  shops  still  cling  to  the  sides  of  the  drains;  the 
jewellers'  shops  hang  above  one  of  the  main  sewers  of 
the  city ;  the  cabinet  and  table-makers  occupy  both  sides 
of  an  important  thoroughfare,  their  precious  furniture 
half  in  and  half  out  of  filthy  gutters.  A  Korean  cabi- 
net is  a  thing  of  great  beauty.  It  is  embossed  with  brass 
plates  and  studded  with  brass  nails,  very  massive,  well 
dovetailed,  altogether  superior  in  design  and  finish. 
The  work  of  the  jewellers  is  crude  and  unattractive,  al- 
though individual  pieces  may  reveal  some  artistic  con- 
ception. In  the  main  the  ornaments  include  silver 
bangles,  hairpins  and  earrings,  with  a  variety  of  objects 
suitable  for  the  decoration  of  the  hair.  The  grain  mer- 
chants and  the  vegetable  dealers  conduct  their  business 
in  the  road.  The  native  merchant  loves  to  encroach 
upon  the  public  thoroughfares  whenever  possible.  Once 
off  the  main  streets  of  the  city,  the  side  alleys  are  com- 
pletely blocked  to  traffic  because  of  the  predilection  of 
the  shopkeepers  upon  either  side  of  the  little  passages 
to  push  their  wares  prominently  Into  the  roadway.  The 
business  of  butchering  is  in  Korea  the  most  degraded 
of  all  trades.  It  is  beyond  even  the  acceptance  and 
recognition  of  the  most  humble  orders  of  the  commu- 
nity. The  meat  shops  ave  unpleasantly  near  the  main 
drains. 

There  are  innumerable  palaces  in  the  capital,  but  as 
His  Majesty  very  frequently  enlarges  his  properties, 

34 


COSTUME 

there  Is  the  prospect  of  other  buildings  being  adapted 
to  his  Imperial  use.  The  precincts  of  the  Palace  always 
afford  opportunities  for  foreigners  to  become  familiar 
with  the  features  of  the  many  Ministers  of  State.  In 
their  anxiety  to  advise  their  sovereign,  they  wrangle 
among  themselves,  or  plot  and  counterplot,  and  fight 
for  the  cards  in  their  own  hands,  irrespective  of  the  fate 
which  their  jealousies  may  bring  down  upon  their  coun- 
try. At  all  hours  processions  of  chairs  are  seen  making 
for  the  palace,  where,  having  deposited  their  masters, 
the  retinue  of  retainers  and  followers  lounge  about  until 
the  audience  is  over.  Then,  with  the  same  silent  dig- 
nity, the  Ministers  are  hurried  away  through  the  crowds 
of  curiously  hatted  and  clothed  people  who  scarcely 
deign  to  notice  the  passing  of  the  august  personages. 

The  officials  are  elegantly  superior  In  their  manner 
and  appearance.  The  distinction  in  the  costumes  of  the 
different  classes  Is  evinced  perhaps  by  the  difference  In 
their  prices.  The  dress  of  a  noble  costs  several  hun- 
dred dollars.  It  Is  made  from  the  finest  silk  lawn  which 
can  be  woven  upon  the  native  looms.  It  Is  exceedingly 
costly,  of  a  very  delicate  texture,  and  cream  colour.  It 
is  ample  in  Its  dimensions  and  sufficiently  enveloping 
to  suggest  a  bath  gown.  It  is  held  in  place  by  two  large 
amber  buttons  placed  well  over  upon  the  right  breast. 
A  silken  girdle  of  mauve  cord  encircles  the  body  below 
the  arm-pits.  The  costume  of  any  one  Individual  may 
comprise  a  succession  of  these  silken  coats  of  cream  silk 
lawn,  or  white  silk  lawn.  In  spotless  condition,  with  an 

35 


KOREA 

outer  garment  of  blue  silk  lawn.  The  movement  of  a 
number  of  these  people  dressed  In  similar  style  Is  like 
the  rustle  of  a  breeze  In  a  forest  of  leaves.  The  dress 
of  the  less  exalted  Is  no  less  striking  In  its  unblemished 
purity.  It  costs  but  a  few  dollars.  It  is  made  from 
grass  lawn  of  varying  degrees  of  texture  or  of  plain 
stout  calico.  It  is  first  washed,  then  pounded  with  heavy 
sticks  upon  stones,  and,  after  being  dried,  beaten  again 
upon  a  stock  until  it  has  taken  a  brilliant  polish.  This 
is  the  sole  occupation  of  the  women  of  the  lower  classes, 
and  through  many  hours  of  the  day  and  night  the  regu- 
lar and  rhythmic  beating  of  these  laundry  sticks  may  be 
heard. 

The  costume  of  the  women  Is  In  some  respects  pecu- 
liar to  the  capital.  The  upper  garment  consists  of  an 
apology  for  a  zouave  jacket  In  white  or  cream  material, 
which  may  be  of  silk  lawn,  lawn  or  calico.  A  few 
Inches  below  this  begins  a  white  petticoat,  baggy  as  a 
sail,  touching  the  ground  upon  all  sides,  and  attached 
to  a  broad  band.  Between  the  two  there  is  nothing  ex- 
cept the  bare  skin,  the  breasts  being  fully  exposed.  It 
is  not  an  agreeable  spectacle,  as  the  women  seen  abroad 
are  usually  aged  or  infirm.  At  all  times,  as  if  to  em- 
phasise their  fading  charms,  they  wear  the  chang-ot,  a 
thin,  green  silk  cloak,  almost  peculiar  to  the  capital 
and  used  by  the  women  to  veil  their  faces  In  passing 
through  the  public  streets.  Upon  the  sight  of  man, 
they  clutch  it  beneath  the  eyes.  The  neck  of  the  gar- 
ment Is  pulled  over  the  head  of  the  wearer,  and  the 

36 


NATIVE    DRESS 


COSTUME 

long  wide  sleeves  fall  from  her  ears.  The  effect  of  the 
contrast  between  the  hidden  face  and  the  naked  breast 
Is  exceptionally  ludicrous.  When  employed  correctly 
only  one  eye,  a  suggestion  of  the  cheek  and  a  glimpse 
of  the  temple  and  forehead  are  revealed.  It  Is,  how- 
ever, almost  unnecessary,  since  in  the  case  of  the  great 
majority  of  the  women,  their  sole  charm  is  the  possible 
beauty  that  the  chang-ot  may  conceal.  They  wear  no 
other  head-covering.  For  ordinary  occasions  they  dress 
their  hair  quite  simply  at  the  nape  of  the  neck,  In  a 
fashion  not  unlike  that  which  Mrs.  Langtry  Intro- 
duced. 

The  head-dress  of  the  men  shows  great  variety,  much 
as  their  costume  possesses  a  distinctive  character. 
When  they  are  in  mourning,  the  first  stage  demands 
a  hat  as  large  as  a  diminutive  open  clothes-basket.  It 
is  four  feet  in  circumference  and  completely  conceals 
the  face,  which  is  hidden  further  by  a  piece  of  coarse 
lawn  stretched  upon  two  sticks,  and  held  just  below  the 
eyes.  In  this  stage  nothing  whatever  of  the  face  may 
be  seen.  The  second  stage  Is  denoted  by  the  removal 
of  the  screen.  The  third  period  Is  manifested  through 
the  replacement  of  the  inverted  basket  by  the  customary 
head-gear,  made  In  straw  colour.  The  ordinary  head- 
covering  takes  the  shape  of  the  high-crowned  hat  worn 
by  Welsh  women,  with  a  broad  brim,  made  In  black 
gauze  upon  a  bamboo  frame.  It  Is  held  In  place  by  a 
chain  beneath  the  chin  or  a  string  of  pieces  of  bamboo, 
between  each  of  which  small  amber  beads  are  Inserted. 

37 


KOREA 

There  are  a  variety  of  Indoor  and  ceremonial  caps  and 
bandeaux  which  are  worn  by  the  upper  and  middle 
classes. 

The  hair  Is  dressed  differently  by  single  and  married 
men.  If  unmarried,  they  adopt  the  queue;  when 
married,  they  put  up  their  hair  and  twist  It  Into  a  coni- 
cal mass  upon  their  heads,  keeping  it  In  place  by  a 
woven  horsehair  band,  which  completely  encircles  the 
forehead  and  base  of  the  skull.  A  few,  influenced  by 
Western  manners,  have  cropped  their  hair.  This  is 
specially  noticeable  among  the  soldiers  on  duty  in  the 
city,  while,  in  compliance  with  the  orders  of  the  Em- 
peror, all  military  and  civil  officials  in  the  capital  have 
adopted  the  foreign  style.  Boys  and  girls,  the  queerest 
and  most  dirty  little  brats,  are  permitted  up  to  a  certain 
age  to  roam  about  the  streets,  to  play  in  the  gutters,  and 
about  the  sewage  pits  in  a  state  of  complete  nudity — a 
form  of  economy  which  Is  common  throughout  the  Far 
East.  The  boys  quickly  drift  into  clothes  and  occupa- 
tions of  a  kind.  The  girls  of  the  poorer  orders  are  sold 
as  domestic  slaves  and  become  attached  to  the  house- 
holds of  the  upper  classes.  From  their  subsequent  ap- 
pearance in  the  street,  when  they  run  beside  the  chairs 
of  their  mistresses,  it  Is  quite  evident  that  they  are 
taught  to  be  clean  and  even  dainty  In  their  appearance. 
At  this  youthful  age  they  are  quaint  and  healthy  look- 
ing children.  The  conditions  under  which  they  live, 
however,  soon  produce  premature  exhaustion. 

Despite  the  Introduction  of  certain  reforms,  there  is 

38 


ORIGIN 

still  much  of  the  old  world  about  Seoul,  many  relics  of 
the  Hermit  Kingdom.  Women  are  still  most  carefully 
secluded.  The  custom,  which  allows  those  of  the  upper 
classes  to  take  outdoor  exercise  only  at  night,  is  ob- 
served. Men  are,  however,  no  longer  excluded  from 
the  streets  at  such  hours.  The  spectacle  of  these  white 
spectres  of  the  night,  flitting  from  point  to  point,  their 
footsteps  lighted  by  the  rays  of  the  lantern  which  their 
girl-slaves  carry  before  them,  is  as  remarkable  as  the 
appearance  of  Seoul  by  daylight,  with  its  moving  masses 
all  garmented  in  white.  A  street  full  of  Koreans  aptly 
suggests,  as  Mr.  Henry  Norman,  M.P.,  once  wrote, 
the  orthodox  notion  of  the  Resurrection.  It  cannot  be 
denied  that  the  appearance  of  both  men  and  women 
makes  the  capital  peculiarly  attractive.  The  men  are 
fine,  well-built  and  peaceful  fellows,  dignified  in  their 
bearing,  polite  and  even  considerate  towards  one 
another.  The  type  shows  unmistakable  evidences  of 
descent  from  the  half  savage  and  nomadic  tribes  of 
Mongolia  and  Northern  Asia  and  the  Caucasian  peo- 
ples from  Western  Asia. 

These  two  races,  coming  from  the  North  In  the  one 
case  and  drifting  up  from  the  South  in  the  other,  at  the 
time  of  the  Ayraan  invasion  of  India,  peopled  the  north 
and  south  of  Korea.  Finally  merging  among  them- 
selves, they  gave  to  the  world  a  composite  nation,  dis- 
tinct In  types,  habits,  and  speech,  and  amalgamated  only 
by  a  rare  train  of  circumstances  over  which  they  could 
have  had  no  control.     It  is  by  the  facial  resemblances 

39 


KOREA 

that  the  origin  of  the  Koreans  may  be  traced  to  a  Cau- 
casian race.  The  speech  of  the  country,  while  closely 
akin  to  Chinese,  reproduces  sounds  and  many  verbal 
denominations  which  are  found  In  the  languages  of  In- 
dia. Korea  has  submitted  to  the  Influence  of  Chinese 
arts  and  literature  for  centuries,  but  there  is  little  actual 
agreement  between  the  legends  of  the  two  countries. 
The  folk-lore  of  China  Is  in  radical  disagreement  with 
the  vague  and  shadowy  traditions  of  the  people  of 
Korea.  There  is  a  vast  blank  In  the  early  history  of 
Korea,  at  a  period  when  China  Is  represented  by  many 
unimpaired  records.  Research  can  make  no  advance 
in  face  of  it;  surmise  and  logical  reflections  from  ex- 
traneous comparisons  alone  can  supply  the  requisite 
data.  Posterity  Is  thus  presented  with  an  unrecorded 
chapter  of  the  world's  history,  which  at  the  best  can 
be  only  faintly  sketched. 


40 


CHAPTER   IV 

The  heart  of  the  capital — Domestic  Economy — Female  slavery 
— Standards  of  morality — A  dress  rehearsal 

THE  Inhabitants  of  the  Hermit  Kingdom  are  pe- 
culiarly proficient  In  the  art  of  doing  nothing 
gracefully.  There  Is,  therefore,  Infinite  charm  and 
variety  In  the  dally  life  of  Korea.  The  natives  take 
their  pleasures  passively,  and  their  constitutional  In- 
capacity makes  It  appear  as  If  there  were  little  to  do  but 
to  Indulge  In  a  gentle  stroll  In  the  brilliant  sunshine,  or 
to  sit  cross-legged  within  the  shade  of  their  houses.  In- 
action becomes  them;  nothing  could  be  more  unsulted 
to  the  character  of  their  peculiar  costume  than  vigorous 
movement.  The  stolid  dignity  of  their  appearance  and 
their  stately  demeanour  adds  vastly  to  the  plcturesque- 
ness  of  the  street  scenes.  The  white-coated,  whlte- 
trousered,  whIte-socked,  slowly  striding  population  Is 
irresistibly  fascinating  to  the  eye.  The  women  are  no 
less  Interesting  than  the  men.  The  unique  fashion  of 
their  dress,  and  Its  general  dissimilarity  to  any  other 
form  of  feminine  garb  the  world  has  ever  known,  ren- 
ders It  sufficiently  characteristic  of  the  vagaries  of  the 
feminine  mind  to  be  attractive. 

Women  do  not  appear  very  much  in  the  streets  dur- 

41 


KOREA 

ing  daylight.  The  degree  of  their  seclusion  depends 
upon  the  position  which  they  fill  In  society.  In  a  gen- 
eral way  the  social  barriers  which  divide  everywhere 
the  three  classes  are  well  defined  here.  The  yang-ban 
or  noble  Is,  of  course,  the  ruling  class.  The  upper-class 
woman  lives  rather  like  a  woman  In  a  zenana ;  from  the 
age  of  twelve  she  Is  visible  only  to  the  people  of  her 
household  and  to  her  immediate  relatives.  She  is 
married  young,  and  thenceforth  her  acquaintances 
among  men  are  restricted  solely  to  within  the  fifth  de- 
gree of  cousinship.  She  may  visit  her  friends,  being 
usually  carried  by  four  bearers  in  a  screened  chair.  She 
seldom  walks,  but  should  she  do  so  her  face  is  invariably 
veiled  in  the  folds  of  a  chang-ot.  Few  restrictions  are 
imposed  upon  the  women  of  the  middle  class  as  to  their 
appearance  in  the  streets,  nor  are  they  so  closely  se- 
cluded in  the  house  as  their  aristocratic  sisters ;  their  faces 
are,  however,  veiled.  The  chang-ot  is  by  no  means  so 
complete  a  medium  of  concealment  as  the  veil  of  Tur- 
key. Moreover,  it  is  often  cast  aside  in  old  age.  The 
dancing-girls,  slaves,  nuns,  and  prostitutes,  all  included 
in  the  lowest  class,  are  forbidden  to  wear  the  chang-ot. 
Women  doctors,  too,  dispense  with  it,  though  only 
women  of  the  highest  birth  are  allowed  to  practise 
medicine. 

In  a  general  way,  the  chief  occupation  of  the  Korean 
woman  is  motherhood.  Much  scandal  arises  if  a  girl 
attains  her  twentieth  year  without  having  married, 
while  no  better  excuse  exists  for  divorce  than  sterility. 

42 


DOMESTIC    ECONOMY 

In  respect  of  marriage,  however,  the  wife  Is  expected 
to  supplement  the  fortune  of  her  husband  and  to  con- 
tribute to  the  finances  of  the  household.  When  women 
of  the  upper  classes  wish  to  embark  in  business,  certain 
careers,  other  than  that  of  medicine,  are  open  to  them. 
They  may  cultivate  the  silkworm,  start  an  apiary,  weave 
straw  shoes,  conduct  a  wine-shop,  or  assume  the  posi- 
tion of  a  teacher.  They  may  undertake  neither  the 
manufacture  of  lace  and  cloth,  nor  the  sale  of  fruit  and 
vegetables.  A  descent  in  the  social  scale  increases  the 
number  and  variety  of  the  callings  which  are  open  to 
women.  Those  of  the  middle  class  may  engage  in  all 
the  occupations  of  the  upper  classes,  with  the  exception 
of  medicine  and  teaching.  They  may  become  concu- 
bines, act  as  cooks,  go  out  as  wet  nurses,  or  fill  posts  in 
the  palace.  They  may  keep  any  description  of  shop, 
tavern,  or  hotel;  they  possess  certain  fishing  privileges, 
which  allow  them  to  take  clams,  cuttle-fish,  and  beches 
de  mer.  They  may  make  every  kind  of  boot  and  shoe. 
They  may  knit  fishing-nets,  and  fashion  tobacco- 
pouches. 

If  some  little  respect  be  accorded  to  women  of  the 
middle  classes,  those  of  a  lower  status  are  held  in  con- 
tempt. Of  the  occupations  open  to  women  of  the  mid- 
dle classes,  there  are  two  In  which  women  of  humble 
origin  cannot  engage.  They  are  ineligible  for  any  po- 
sition in  the  palace :  they  may  not  manufacture  tobacco- 
pouches.  They  may  become  sorceresses,  jugglers, 
tumblers,   contortionists,   dancing-girls  and  courtesans. 

43 


KOREA 

There  Is  this  wide  distinction  between  the  members  of 
the  two  oldest  professions  which  the  world  has  ever 
known:  the  dancing-girl  usually  closes  her  career  by 
becoming  the  concubine  of  some  wealthy  noble;  the 
courtesan  does  not  close  her  career  at  all. 

It  is  impossible  not  to  admire  the  activity  and  energy 
of  the  Korean  woman.  Despite  the  contempt  with 
which  she  is  treated,  she  is  the  great  economic  factor  in 
the  household  and  in  the  life  of  the  nation.  Force  of 
circumstance  has  made  her  the  beast  of  burden.  She 
works  that  her  superior  lord  and  master  may  dwell 
In  idleness,  comparative  luxury,  and  peace.  In  spite  of 
the  depressing  and  baneful  effects  of  this  absurd  dogma 
of  inferiority,  and  in  contradiction  of  centuries  of 
theory  and  philosophy,  her  diligent  integrity  is  more 
evident  In  the  national  life  than  her  husband's  Industry. 
She  Is  exceptionally  active,  vigorous  In  character,  re- 
sourceful In  emergency,  superstitious,  persevering,  in- 
domitable, courageous,  and  devoted.  Among  the  mid- 
dle and  lower  classes  she  Is  the  tailor  and  the  laundress 
of  the  nation.  She  does  the  work  of  a  man  In  the  house- 
hold and  of  a  beast  In  the  fields;  she  cooks  and  sews; 
she  washes  and  Irons;  she  organises  and  carries  on  a 
business,  or  tills  and  cultivates  a  farm.  In  the  face  of 
every  adversity,  and  In  those  times  of  trial  and  distress. 
In  which  her  liege  and  lazy  lord  utterly  and  hopelessly 
collapses.  It  Is  she  who  holds  the  wretched,  ramshackle 
home  together.  Under  the  previous  dynasty,  the  sphere 
of  the  women  of  Korea  was  less  restricted.    There  was 

44 


FEMALE   SLAVERY 

no  law  of  seclusion;  the  sex  enjoyed  greater  public  free- 
dom. In  its  closing  decades,  however,  the  tone  of  so- 
ciety lowered,  and  women  became  the  special  objects 
of  violence.  Buddhist  priests  were  guilty  of  widespread 
debauchery;  conjugal  infidelity  was  a  pastime;  rape  be- 
came the  fashion.  The  present  dynasty  endeavoured 
to  check  these  evils  by  ordaining  and  promoting  the  Iso- 
lation and  greater  subjection  of  the  sex.  Vice  and  Im- 
morality had  been  so  long  and  so  promiscuously  prac- 
ticed, however,  that  already  men  had  begun  to  keep 
their  women  In  seclusion  of  their  own  accord.  If  they 
respected  them  to  some  extent,  they  were  wholly  doubt- 
ful of  one  another.  Distrust  and  suspicion  were  thus 
the  pre-eminent  causes  of  this  Immuring  of  the  women, 
the  system  developing  of  Itself,  as  the  male  Koreans 
learnt  to  dread  the  evil  propensities  of  their  own  sex. 
It  Is  possible  that  the  women  find,  In  that  protection 
which  Is  now  accorded  them,  some  little  compensation 
for  the  drudgery  and  interminable  hard  work  that  Is 
their  portion. 

The  system  of  slavery  among  the  Koreans  Is  con- 
fined, at  present,  to  the  possession  of  female  slaves.  Up 
to  the  time  of  the  great  invasion  of  Korea  by  the  Japan- 
ese armies  under  Hideyoshi,  In  1592,  both  male  and 
female  slaves  were  permitted.  The  loss  of  men  In  that 
war  was  so  great  that,  upon  Its  conclusion,  a  law  was 
promulgated  which  forbade  the  bondage  of  males. 
There  Is,  however,  the  sang-no  (slave  boy),  who  ren- 
ders certain  services  only,  and  receives  his  food  and 

45 


KOREA 

clothes  In  compensation.  The  position  of  the  sang-no 
Is  more  humble  than  that  filled  by  the  paid  servant  and 
superior  to  that  of  the  slave  proper.  He  is  bound  by 
no  agreement  and  Is  free  to  leave. 

The  duties  of  a  slave  comprise  the  rough  work  of  the 
house.  She  attends  to  the  washing — an  exacting  and 
continuous  labour  In  a  Korean  household;  carries  water 
from  the  well,  assists  with  the  cooking,  undertakes  the 
marketing  and  runs  errands.  She  is  not  allowed  to  par- 
ticipate In  any  duties  of  a  superior  character;  her  place 
Is  In  the  kitchen  or  in  the  yard,  and  she  cannot  become 
either  a  lady's  maid  or  a  favoured  servant  of  any  de- 
gree. In  the  fulness  of  time  she  may  figure  in  the 
funeral  procession  of  her  master. 

There  are  four  ways  by  which  the  Korean  woman 
may  become  a  slave.  She  may  give  herself  into  slavery, 
voluntarily.  In  exchange  for  food,  clothes  and  shelter 
through  her  abject  poverty.  The  woman  who  becomes 
a  slave  in  this  way  cannot  buy  back  her  freedom.  She 
has  fewer  rights  than  the  slave  who  Is  bought  or  who 
sells  herself.  The  daughter  of  any  slave  who  dies  in 
service  continues  In  slavery.  In  the  event  of  the  mar- 
riage of  her  mistress  such  a  slave  ranks  as  a  part  of  the 
matrimonial  dot.  A  woman  may  be  reduced  to  slavery 
by  the  treasonable  misdemeanours  of  a  relative.  The 
family  of  a  man  convicted  of  treason  becomes  the  prop- 
erty of  the  Government,  the  women  being  allotted  to 
high  officials.  They  are  usually  liberated.  Again,  a 
woman  may  submit  herself  to  the  approval  of  a  pros- 

46 


STANDARDS   OF    MORALTY 

pectlve  employer.  If  she  Is  found  satisfactory  and  Is 
well  recommended,  her  services  may  realise  between 
forty,  fifty,  or  one  hundred  thousand  cash.  When  pay- 
men  has  been  made,  she  gives  a  deed  of  her  own  person 
to  her  purchaser.  Imprinting  the  outline  of  her  hand 
upon  the  document,  In  place  of  a  seal,  and  for  the  pur- 
pose of  supplying  easy  means  of  Identification.  Al- 
though this  transaction  does  not  receive  the  cognisance 
of  the  Government,  the  contract  Is  binding. 

As  the  law  provides  that  the  daughter  of  a  slave  must 
take  the  place  of  her  parent,  should  she  die.  It  Is  plainly 
In  the  Interests  of  the  owner  to  promote  the  marriage 
of  his  slaves.  Slaves  who  receive  compensation  for  their 
services  are  entitled  to  marry  whom  they  please;  quar- 
ters are  provided  for  the  couple.  The  master  of  the 
house,  however,  has  no  claim  upon  the  services  of  the 
husband.  The  slave  who  voluntarily  assigns  herself  to 
slavery  and  receives  no  price  for  her  services  may  not 
marry  without  consent.  In  these  cases  It  Is  not  an  un- 
usual custom  for  her  master.  In  the  course  of  a  few 
years,  to  restore  her  liberty. 

Hitherto,  the  position  of  the  Korean  woman  has  been 
so  humble  that  her  education  has  been  unnecessary. 
Save  among  those  who  belong  to  the  less  reputable 
classes,  the  literary  and  artistic  faculties  are  left  uncul- 
tivated. Among  the  courtesans,  however,  the  mental 
abilities  are  trained  and  developed  with  a  view  to  mak- 
ing them  brilliant  and  entertaining  companions.  The 
one  sign  of  their  profession  Is  the  culture,  the  charm, 

47 


KOREA 

and  the  scope  of  their  attainments.  These  ''  leaves  of 
sunlight,"  a  feature  of  public  life  In  Korea,  stand  apart 
In  a  class  of  their  own.  They  are  called  gisaing,  and 
correspond  to  the  geisha  of  Japan ;  the  duties,  environ- 
ment, and  mode  of  existence  of  the  two  are  almost  iden- 
tical. Officially,  they  are  attached  to  a  department  of 
Government,  and  are  controlled  by  a  bureau  of  their 
own.  In  common  with  the  Court  musicians.  They  are 
supported  from  the  national  treasury,  and  they  are  in 
evidence  at  official  dinners  and  all  palace  entertain- 
ments. They  read  and  recite ;  they  dance  and  sing ;  they 
become  accomplished  artists  and  musicians.  They 
dress  with  exceptional  taste ;  they  move  with  exceeding 
grace;  they  are  delicate  In  appearance,  very  frail  and 
very  human,  very  tender,  sympathetic,  and  imaginative. 
By  their  artistic  and  intellectual  endowment,  the  danc- 
ing girls,  ironically  enough,  are  debarred  from  the  po- 
sitions for  which  their  talents  so  peculiarly  fit  them. 
They  may  move  through,  and  as  a  fact  do  live  in,  the 
highest  society.  They  are  met  at  the  houses  of  the  most 
distinguished;  they  may  be  selected  as  the  concubines 
of  the  Emperor,  become  the  femmes  d'amour  of  a 
prince,  the  puppets  of  the  noble.  A  man  of  breeding 
may  not  marry  them,  however,  although  they  typify 
everything  that  is  brightest,  liveliest,  and  most  beauti- 
ful. Amongst  their  own  sex,  their  reputation  is  in  ac- 
cordance with  their  standard  of  morality,  a  distinction 
being  made  between  those  whose  careers  are  embellished 
with  the  quasi  chastity  of  a  concubine,  and  those  who 

48 


STANDARDS   OF    MORALITY 

are  identified  with  the  more  pretentious  display  of  the 
mere  prostitute. 

In  the  hope  that  their  children  may  achieve  that  suc- 
cess which  will  ensure  their  support  in  their  old  age, 
parents,  when  stricken  with  poverty,  dedicate  their 
daughters  to  the  career  of  a  gisaing,  much  as  they  ap- 
prentice their  sons  to  that  of  a  eunuch.  The  girls  are 
chosen  for  the  perfect  regularity  of  their  features. 
Their  freedom  from  blemish,  when  first  selected,  is  es- 
sential. They  are  usually  pretty,  elegant,  and  dainty. 
It  is  almost  certain  that  they  are  the  prettiest  women  in 
Korea,  and,  although  the  order  is  extensive  and  the 
class  is  gathered  from  all  over  the  kingdom,  the  most 
beautiful  and  accomplished  gisaing  come  from  Pyong- 
an.  The  arts  and  graces  in  which  they  are  so  carefully 
educated,  procure  their  elevation  to  positions  in  the 
households  of  their  protectors,  superior  to  that  which 
is  held  by  the  legal  wife.  As  a  consequence,  Korean 
folk-lore  abounds  with  stories  of  the  strife  and  wifely 
lamentation  arising  from  the  ardent  and  prolonged  de- 
votion of  husbands  to  girls,  whom  fate  prevents  their 
taking  to  a  closer  union.  The  women  are  slight  of 
stature,  with  diminutive,  pretty  feet,  and  graceful, 
shapely  hands.  They  are  quiet  and  unassuming  in  their 
manner.  Their  smile  is  bright;  their  deportment  mod- 
est, their  appearance  winsome.  They  wear  upon  state 
occasions  voluminous,  silk-gauze  skirts  of  variegated 
hues;  a  diaphanous  silken  jacket,  with  long  loose 
sleeves,    extending    beyond    the    hands,    protects    the 

49 


KOREA 

shoulders;  jewelled  girdles,  pressing  their  naked  breasts, 
sustain  their  draperies.  An  elaborate,  heavy  and  arti- 
ficial head-dress  of  black  hair,  twisted  In  plaits  and 
decorated  with  many  silver  ornaments,  is  worn.  The 
music  of  the  dance  Is  plaintive  and  the  song  of  the 
dancer  somewhat  melancholy.  Many  movements  are 
executed  In  stockinged  feet;  the  dances  are  quite  free 
from  indelicacy  and  suggestlveness.  Indeed,  several  are 
curiously  pleasing. 

Upon  one  occasion,  Yl-cha-sun,  the  brother  of  the 
Emperor,  Invited  me  to  watch  the  dress  rehearsal  of  an 
approaching  Palace  festival.  Although  this  exceptional 
consideration  was  shown  me  unsolicited,  I  found  it  quite 
impossible  to  secure  permission  to  photograph  the  glid- 
ing, graceful  figures  of  the  dancers.  When  my  chair 
deposited  me  at  the  yamen  the  dance  was  already  in 
progress.  The  chairs  of  the  officials  and  chatter- 
ing groups  of  the  servants  of  the  dancers  filled  the  com- 
pound; soldiers  of  the  Imperial  Guard  kept  watch  be- 
fore the  gates.  The  air  was  filled  with  the  tremulous 
notes  of  the  pipes  and  viols,  whose  plaintive  screaming 
was  punctuated  with  the  booming  of  drums.  Within 
a  building,  the  walls  of  which  were  open  to  the  air,  the 
rows  of  dancers  were  visible  as  they  swayed  slowly  and 
almost  imperceptibly  with  the  music. 

From  the  dais  where  my  host  was  sitting  the  dance 
was  radiant  with  colour.  There  were  eighteen  per- 
formers, grouped  in  three  equal  divisions,  and,  as  the 
streaming  sunshine  played  upon  the  shimmering  surface 

50 


A   DRESS   REHEARSAL 

of  their  dresses,  the  lithe  and  graceful  figures  of  the 
dancers  floated  in  the  brilliant  reflection  of  a  sea  of 
sparkling  light.  The  dance  was  almost  without  motion, 
so  slowly  were  its  fantastic  figures  developed.  Never 
once  were  their  arms  dropped  from  their  horizontal 
position,  nor  did  the  size  and  weight  of  their  head- 
dresses appear  to  fatigue  the  little  women.  Very 
slowly,  the  seated  band  gave  forth  the  air.  Very 
slowly,  the  dancers  moved  in  the  open  space  before  us, 
their  arms  upraised,  their  gauze  and  silken  draperies 
clustering  round  them,  their  hair  piled  high,  and  held  in 
its  curious  shape  by  many  jewelled  and  enamelled  pins, 
which  sparkled  in  the  sunshine.  The  air  was  solemn; 
and,  as  if  the  movement  were  ceremonial,  their  voices 
rose  and  fell  in  a  lingering  harmony  of  passionate  ex- 
pression. At  times,  the  three  sets  came  together,  the 
hues  of  the  silken  skirts  blending  in  one  vivid  blaze  of 
barbaric  splendour.  Then,  as  another  movement  suc- 
ceeded, the  eighteen  figures  broke  apart  and,  poised 
upon  their  toes,  in  stately  and  measured  unison  circled 
round  the  floor,  their  arms  rising  and  falling,  their 
bodies  bending  and  swaying,  in  dreamy  undulation. 

The  dance  epitomised  the  poetry  and  grace  of  human 
motion.  The  dainty  attitudes  of  the  performers  had  a 
gentle  delicacy  which  was  delightful.  The  long  silken 
robes  revealed  a  singular  grace  of  deportment,  and  one 
looked  upon  dancers  who  were  clothed  from  head  to 
foot,  not  naked,  brazen  and  unashamed,  like  those  of 
our  own  burlesque,  with  infinite  relief  and  infinite  satis- 

51 


KOREA 

faction.  There  was  power  and  purpose  In  their  move- 
ments; artistic  subtlety  In  their  poses.  Their  flowing 
robes  emphasised  the  simplicity  of  their  gestures;  the 
pallor  of  their  faces  was  unconcealed;  their  glances 
were  timid;  their  manner  modest.  The  strange  eerie 
notes  of  the  curious  instruments,  the  fluctuating  ca- 
dence of  the  song,  the  gliding  motion  of  the  dancers, 
the  dazzling  sheen  of  the  silks,  the  vivid  colours  of  the 
skirts,  the  flush  of  flesh  beneath  the  silken  shoulder- 
coats,  appealed  to  one  silently  and  signally,  stirring  the 
emotions  with  an  enthusiasm  which  was  Irrepressible. 

The  fascinating  figures  approached  softly,  smoothly 
sliding;  and,  as  they  glided  slowly  forward,  the  song 
of  the  music  welled  Into  passionate  lamentation.  The 
character  of  the  dance  changed.  No  longer  advancing, 
the  dancers  moved  In  time  to  the  beating  of  the  drums ; 
rotating  circles  of  colour,  their  arms  swaying,  their 
bodies  swinging  backwards  and  forwards,  as  their  re- 
treating footsteps  took  them  from  us.  The  little  figures 
seemed  unconscious  of  their  art ;  the  musicians  Ignorant 
of  the  qualities  of  their  wailing.  Nevertheless,  the  mas- 
terly restraint  of  the  band,  the  conception,  skill  and 
execution  of  the  dancers,  made  up  a  triumph  of  tech- 
nique. 

As  the  dance  swept  to  its  climax,  nothing  so  accen- 
tuated the  admiration  of  the  audience  as  their  perfect 
stillness.  From  the  outer  courts  came  for  a  brief  In- 
stant the  clatter  of  servants  and  the  screams  of  angry 
stallions.      Threatening    glances    quickly    hushed    the 

52 


A   DRESS   REHEARSAL 

slaves,  nothing  breaking  the  magnetism  of  the  dance 
for  long.  The  dance  ended,  It  became  the  turn  of 
others  to  rehearse  their  Individual  contributions,  while 
those  who  were  now  free  sat  chatting  with  my  host,  eat- 
ing sweets,  smoking  cigarettes,  cigars,  or  affecting  the 
long  native  pipe.  Many,  discarding  their  head-dresses, 
lay  upon  their  sitting  mats,  their  eyes  closed  in  momen- 
tary rest  as  their  servants  fanned  them.  His  Highness 
apparently  appreciated  the  familiarity  with  which  they 
treated  him.  In  the  enjoyment  and  encouragement  of 
their  little  jokes  he  squeezed  their  cheeks  and  pinched 
their  arms,  as  he  sat  among  them. 


53 


CHAPTER    V 

The  Court  of  Korea — The  Emperor  and  his  Chancellor — 
The  Empress  and  some  Palace  factions 

A  STUDY  of  the  morals  and  personalities  of  the 
Court  of  Korea  throws  no  little  light  upon  the 
Interesting  phases  of  its  contemporary  condition,  even 
affording  some  explanation  of  the  political  differences 
and  difficulties  which,  If  now  in  the  past,  may  be  ex- 
pected none  the  less  to  crop  up  again.  Since  the  das- 
tardly murder  by  the  Japanese  of  the  Queen,  who  held 
the  reins  of  Government  with  strong  hands,  the  power 
of  the  Emperor  has  been  controlled  by  one  or  other  of 
the  Palace  factions.  His  Majesty  Is  now  almost  a 
cypher  In  the  management  of  his  Empire.  Nominally, 
the  Emperor  of  Korea  enjoys  the  prerogative  and  Inde- 
pendence of  an  autocrat;  In  reality  he  Is  In  the  hands  of 
that  party  whose  Intrigues  for  the  time  being  may  have 
given  them  the  upper  hand.  He  Is  the  slave  of  the  su- 
perb Immoralities  of  his  women.  When  he  breaks  away 
from  their  gentle  thraldom.  In  the  endeavour  to  free 
himself  from  their  political  associations,  his  exceedingly 
able  and  unscrupulous  Minister,  YI  Yong-Ik,  the  chief 
of  the  Household  Bureau,  rules  him  with  a  rod  of  Iron. 
It  matters  not  In  what  direction  the  will  of  his  Majesty 

54 


THE  EMPEROR  AND  HIS  CHANCELLOR 

should  lie,  it  is  certain  to  be  thwarted  with  the  conni- 
vance of  Palace  concubines  or  by  the  direct  bribery  of 
Ministers.  If  the  King  dared,  Yi  Yong-ik  would  be 
degraded  at  once.  No  previous  Minister  has  proved  so 
successful,  however,  in  supplying  the  Court  with  money; 
and,  as  the  Emperor  dreads  an  empty  treasury,  he  main- 
tains him  In  his  confidence. 

In  the  position  of  Minister  of  Finance  and  Treasurer 
of  the  Imperial  Palace,  which  he  once  filled,  YI  Yong-ik 
opposed  foreign  supervision  of  the  revenues  of  the 
Maritime  Customs.  Acting  In  concert  with  the  Russian 
and  French  Ministers,  he  was  primarily  responsible  for 
the  most  recent  crisis  in  the  affairs  of  Mr.  McLeavy 
Brown,  the  Chief  Comptroller  and  Executive  Adminis- 
trator of  the  Korean  Maritime  Customs.  At  a  time 
when  the  Imperial  household  was  in  need  of  money,  YI 
Yong-ik  created  the  desire  for  a  loan  by  withholding 
the  revenue  of  the  Privy  Purse  from  his  master.  It  was 
explained  to  his  Majesty  that  his  financial  embarrass- 
ments were  due  to  the  action  of  his  Chief  Commissioner 
of  Customs  In  locking  up  the  proceeds  of  the  Customs. 
Supported  by  the  influence  of  the  Russian  and  French 
Ministers,  YI  Yong-ik  suggested  that  the  Customs  rev- 
enue should  become  the  security  for  the  loan  which  was 
being  pressed  upon  him  by  a  French  syndicate.  When 
Mr.  McLeavy  Brown  heard  of  the  transaction  between 
the  agent  of  the  syndicate  and  the  Minister  of  Finance, 
he  at  once  repudiated  any  hypothecation  of  the  revenues 
of  the  Customs  for  such  a  purpose.     In  co-operation 

5^ 


KOREA 

with  the  French  and  Russian  Ministers,  Yi  Yong-ik, 
upon  a  variety  of  pretexts,  attempted  to  bring  about 
the  peremptory  dismissal  of  the  Chief  Commissioner  of 
the  Customs.  He  was  foiled  In  this  by  the  unexpected 
demonstration  of  a  British  Squadron  In  Chemulpo  Har- 
bour, and  the  attendant  preparation  and  embarkation  of 
a  field  force  at  Wei-hal-wei.  Upon  the  withdrawal  of 
the  guarantee  of  the  Customs  revenue  the  Franco-Rus- 
sian scheme  collapsed,  the  agent  of  the  interested  syndi- 
cate returning  to  Europe  to  complain  of  the  action  of  the 
British  Minister  and  the  Chief  Commissioner  of  Cus- 
toms. 

YI  Yong-Ik  Is  an  Instance,  together  with  that  afforded 
by  Lady  Om,  of  a  Korean  of  most  humble  birth  rising 
to  a  position  of  great  importance  In  the  administration 
of  the  country.  A  man  of  low  parentage,  he  attached 
himself  to  the  fortunes  of  MIn  Yeung-ik,  gradually 
forcing  himself  upon  the  notice  of  his  patron,  as  also  of 
his  sovereign.  The  services  which  YI  Yong-lk  rendered 
to  the  throne  during  the  emeute  of  1884,  when  he  was 
a  chair  coolie  In  the  service  of  the  late  Queen,  found 
responsive  echo  In  the  memories  of  their  Majesties,  who 
procured  his  preferment.  He  was  advanced  to  a  position 
In  which  his  admitted  sagacity,  strength  of  mind,  and 
shrewdness  were  of  material  assistance,  continuing  to 
rise  until  he  became  Minister  of  Finance.  He  has  thus 
made  his  own  position  from  very  Insignificant  begin- 
nings, and,  in  justice  to  him,  It  may  be  said  that  he  serves 
the  interests  of  his  Majesty  to  the  best  of  his  ability. 


THE   EMPEROR 

Nevertheless  he  Is  in  turn  feared  and  detested.  Numer- 
ous attempts  have  been  made  against  him,  while,  within 
the  last  few  months,  failing  to  take  his  life  by  poisoned 
food,  some  unknown  enemies  discharged  an  infernal  ma- 
chine in  the  room  at  the  Seoul  Hospital  where  he  was 
confined  during  an  attack  of  sickness.  Alternately  upon 
the  crest  of  the  wave  or  In  the  backwash  of  the  tide, 
Yi  Yong-ik  remains  the  most  enduring  personality  In  the 
Court.  The  Russian  Influence  is  behind  him,  while  the 
Emperor  also  is  secretly  upon  the  side  of  his  energetic 
Minister.  At  a  moment,  recently,  when  the  opposition 
against  him  became  too  strong,  YI  Yong-ik  took  refuge 
upon  a  Russian  warship,  which  at  once  carried  him  to 
Port  Arthur.  From  this  retreat  he  negotiated  for  a  safe 
return  with  his  Majesty,  who  at  once  granted  him  a 
strong  escort.  YI  Yong-ik  then  returned  and,  proceed- 
ing at  once  to  the  Palace,  quickly  reinstated  himself  in 
the  good  graces  of  his  master,  thus  again  thwarting  the 
plans  and  secret  machinations  of  his  opponents. 

His  Majesty  the  Emperor  of  Korea  was  fifty  years 
old  in  September  1900,  being  called  to  the  throne  In 
1864,  when  he  was  thirteen.  He  was  married  at  the 
age  of  fifteen  to  the  Princess  MIn,  a  lady  of  birth,  of 
the  same  age  as  her  husband.  It  was  she  who  was  wan- 
tonly assassinated  by  the  Japanese  In  1895.  The  son  of 
this  union  is  the  Crown  Prince.  His  Majesty  Is  some- 
what short  of  stature,  as  compared  with  the  average 
height  of  the  Korean.  He  Is  only  five  feet  four  Inches. 
His  face  Is  pleasant;  impassive  In  repose,  brightening 

57 


KOREA 

with  an  engaging  smile  when  In  conversation.  His 
voice  Is  soft  and  pleasing  to  the  ear;  he  talks  with  easy 
assurance,  some  vivacity  and  nervous  energy. 

During  an  audience  with  a  foreigner,  the  manner  of 
the  Emperor  has  an  air  of  frankness  and  singular  bon- 
homie. He  talks  with  every  one,  pointing  his  remarks 
with  graceful  gestures,  and  Interrupting  his  sentences 
with  melodious  and  Infectious  laughter.  The  mark  of 
the  Emperor's  favour  Is  the  receipt  of  a  fan.  When  a 
foreigner  is  presented  to  him,  it  is  customary  to  find 
upon  the  conclusion  of  the  audience  a  small  parcel  await- 
ing his  acceptance,  containing  a  few  paper  fans  and 
sometimes  a  roll  of  silk.  The  Emperor  rarely  exceeds 
this  limit  to  his  Imperial  patronage,  for,  like  the 
rest  of  his  people,  he  cannot  afford  to  be  unduly  gen- 
erous. 

The  dress  of  his  Majesty  upon  these  occasions  is  re- 
markable for  its  impressive  and  Imperial  grandeur.  A 
long  golden  silk  robe  of  state,  embroidered  with  gold 
braid,  with  a  girdle  of  golden  cord,  edged  with  a  heavy 
gold  fringe,  covers  him.  While  the  magnificence  of  this 
attire  excites  envy  in  the  heart  of  any  one  who  sees  it, 
the  ease  and  dignity  of  his  carriage  suggest  his  complete 
unconsciousness  of  the  impression  which  he  is  creating  in 
the  minds  of  his  guests. 

The  Emperor  is  ignorant  of  Western  languages,  but 
he  is  an  earnest  student  of  those  educational  works 
which  have  been  translated  for  the  purposes  of  the 
schools  he  has  established  in  his  capital.     In  this  way 

S8 


THE    EMPEROR   AND    LADY   OM 

he  has  become  singularly  well  informed  upon  many  sub- 
jects. He  speaks  and  writes  Chinese  with  fluency,  and 
he  is  a  most  profound  student  of  the  history  of  his  own 
people.  The  method  and  system  of  his  rule  is  based  on 
the  thesis  of  his  own  personal  supervision  of  all  public 
business.  If  there  be  some  little  difference  between  the 
Utopia  of  his  Intentions  and  the  actual  achievement  of 
his  government,  it  is  Impossible  to  deny  his  assiduity 
and  perseverance.  He  Is  a  kind,  amiable,  and  merciful 
potentate,  desirous  of  the  advancement  of  his  country. 
He  works  at  night,  continuing  the  sessions  and  confer- 
ences with  his  Ministers  until  after  dawn.  He  has 
faults,  many,  according  to  the  Western  standards  by 
which  I  have  no  intention  of  judging  him.  He  has  also 
many  virtues;  and,  he  receives,  and  deserves,  the  sym- 
pathy of  all  foreigners  In  the  vast  works  of  reform 
which  he  has  encouraged  In  his  dominions. 

His  Majesty  is  progressive.  In  view  of  the  number 
and  magnitude  of  the  developments  which  have  taken 
place  under  his  rule.  It  is  impossible  to  credit  him  with 
any  of  those  prejudices  against  Western  Innovations 
which  have  distinguished  the  East  from  time  imme- 
morial. There  are  special  schools  In  Seoul  for  teaching 
English,  French,  German,  Russian,  Chinese  and  Japan- 
ese; there  Is  a  School  of  Law,  a  School  of  Engineering 
and  Science,  a  School  of  Medicine,  and  a  Military  Acad- 
emy. These  are  but  a  few  minor  Indications  of  the 
freedom  of  his  rule,  the  sure  sign  of  a  later  prosperity. 
He  Is  tolerant  of  missionaries,  and  he  is  said  to  favour 

59 


KOREA 

their  activities.  It  is  certain  that  his  rule  permits  great 
liberty  of  action,  while  it  is  distingushed  by  extraordi- 
nary immunity  from  persecution.  His  reign  is  in  happy 
contrast  with  the  inter-regnum  of  the  Regent,  Tai  Won 
Kun,  who  regarded  priests  and  converts  as  a  pest,  and 
who  eradicated  them  to  the  best  of  his  ability. 

As  the  autocratic  monarch  of  a  country,  whose  oldest 
associations  are  opposed  to  all  external  interference,  the 
attitude  of  his  Majesty  has  been  instinct  with  the  most 
humane  principles,  with  great  integrity  of  purpose  and 
much  enlightenment.  It  cannot  be  said  that  his  reign 
has  been  a  failure,  or  that  it  has  not  tended  to  the  bene- 
fit of  his  people  and  his  realms.  Certain  evil  practices 
still  exist,  but  his  faults  as  an  Emperor  are,  to  a  great 
extent,  due  to  the  worthlessness  of  his  officials.  Indeed, 
he  frequently  receives  the  condemnation  which  should 
be  passed  upon  the  minds  and  morals  of  his  Min- 
isters. 

Saving  Yi  Yong-ik,  the  most  important  figure  in  the 
Court  is  the  mature  and  elderly  Lady  Om,  the  wife  of 
his  Majesty.  In  a  Court  which  is  abandoned  to  every 
phase  of  Eastern  immorality,  it  is  a  little  disappointing 
to  find  that  the  first  lady  in  the  land  no  longer  possesses 
those  charms  of  face  and  figure,  which  should  explain 
her  position.  There  is  no  doubt  that  the  Lady  Om  is  a 
clever  woman.  She  is  most  remarkably  astute  In  her 
management  of  the  Emperor,  whose  profound  attach- 
ment to  her  Is  a  curious  paradox.  Lady  Om  Is  mature, 
fat,  and  feebly,  if  freely,  frolicsome.    Her  face  is  pitted 

60 


THE   EMPEROR  AND    LADY   OM 

with  small-pox;  her  teeth  are  uneven;  her  skin  is  of  a 
saffron  tint.  There  is  some  suggestion  of  a  squint  in  her 
dark  eyes,  a  possible  reminder  of  the  pest  which  afflicts 
all  Koreans.  She  paints  very  little  and  she  eschews 
garlic.  Her  domination  of  the  Emperor  is  wonderful. 
Except  at  rare  intervals,  and  then  only  when  the  assent 
of  Lady  Om  to  the  visit  of  a  new  beauty  has  been 
given,  he  has  no  eye  for  any  other  woman.  Neverthe- 
less, the  Lady  Om  has  not  always  been  a  Palace  beauty; 
she  was  not  always  the  shining  light  of  the  Imperial 
harem.  Her  amours  have  made  Korean  history;  only 
two  of  her  five  children  belong  to  the  Emperor;  yet  one 
of  these  may  become  the  future  occupant  of  his  father's 
throne. 

In  her  maiden  days,  she  became  the  mistress  of  a 
Chinaman;  tiring  of  him  she  passed  into  the  grace  and 
favour  of  a  Cabinet  Minister.  He  introduced  her  to 
the  service  of  the  late  Queen,  whose  acquaintance  she 
made  at  the  house  of  her  father,  a  Palace  attendant  of 
low  degree,  with  quarters  within  the  walls.  By  the 
time  that  she  became  a  woman  in  the  service  of  her 
Majesty,  the  Lady  Om  had  presented  a  child  to  each  of 
her  respective  partners.  As  the  virtue  of  the  women  in 
attendance  upon  the  Queen  had  of  necessity  to  be  as- 
sured, her  previous  admirers  kept  their  counsel  for  the 
safety  of  their  own  heads.  The  Lady  Om  boasted 
abilities  which  distinguished  her  among  the  other  maids 
in  attendance.  She  sang  to  perfection,  danced  with  con- 
summate grace ;  painted  with  no  little  delicacy  and  origi- 

6i 


KOREA 

nality,  and  could  read,  write,  and  speak  Chinese  and 
Korean  with  agreeable  fluency.  The  Queen  took  a 
fancy  to  her  apparently  innocent,  guileless,  and  very 
lovable  attendant.  Imitating  the  excellent  example  of 
his  illustrious  spouse,  his  Majesty  sealed  the  rape  of  vir- 
tue with  a  kingly  smile.  The  Queen  grew  restless. 
Suspicion,  confirmed  by  appearances,  developed  Into  cer- 
tainty, and  the  Lady  Om  fled  from  the  Palace  to  escape 
the  anger  and  jealousy  of  her  late  mistress.  The  third 
child,  of  whom  Lady  Om  became  the  mother,  was  born 
beyond  the  capital.  In  the  place  of  refuge  where  the 
errant  GrIselle  had  taken  up  her  abode.  Meanwhile, 
Lady  Om  avoided  the  parental  establishment  within  the 
purlieus  of  the  Palace.  Upon  the  death  of  her  third 
child  she  sought  the  protection  of  another  high  official. 
With  him  she  dwelt  In  safety,  peace,  and  happiness,  be- 
coming, through  her  strange  faculty  of  presenting  each 
admirer  with  evidences  of  her  Innocence,  the  subject  of 
some  ribald  songs.  Since  her  return  to  Imperial  favour, 
these  verses  have  been  suppressed,  and  may  not  be 
uttered  upon  pain  of  emasculation. 

It  now  seemed  as  If  the  Lady  Om  had  settled  down, 
but  the  events  of  1895,  culminating  In  the  foul  murder 
of  the  late  Queen,  prompted  her  to  renew  her  acquaint- 
ance with  the  unhappy  Emperor.  She  became  a  Palace 
attendant  again,  and  at  once  cleverly  succeeded  in  bring- 
ing herself  before  the  Imperial  notice.  She  was  sweetly 
sympathetic  towards  his  Majesty;  her  commiseration, 
her  tenderness,  her  suppliant  air  of  Injured  Innocence, 

62 


SOME   PALACE    FACTIONS 

almost  Immediately  captivated  him.  She  was  raised  to 
the  rank  of  an  Imperial  concubine;  money  was  showered 
upon  her,  and  she  proceeded  immediately  to  exercise  an 
influence  over  the  Emperor  which  has  never  relaxed. 
She  became  a  power  at  Court  and  once  again  a  mother. 
Her  influence  is  now  directed  towards  the  definite  main- 
tenance of  her  own  Interests.  She  wishes  her  son  to  be 
the  future  Emperor;  she  Is  now  living  In  a  palace,  and, 
since  she  Is  the  apple  of  his  Majesty's  eye,  she  permits 
nothing  to  endanger  the  stakes  for  which  she  Is  playing. 
Recently  Kim  Yueng-chun,  an  official  of  importance  but 
of  precarious  position,  wishing  to  secure  himself  In  the 
consideration  of  his  sovereign.  Introduced  a  new  beauty, 
whose  purity  and  loveliness  were  unquestioned.  Lady 
Om  heard  of  Lady  Kang  and  said  nothing.  Within 
two  weeks,  however,  the  Minister  was  removed  upon 
some  small  pretext,  and  subsequently  tortured,  mu- 
tilated, and  strangled.  The  Lady  Kang  found  that  If 
the  mills  of  Lady  Om  grind  slowly,  they  grind  exceed- 
ingly small. 

Lady  Om  Is  a  lover  of  ancient  customs;  by  ancient 
customs  she  made  her  way;  by  ancient  customs  she  pro- 
poses to  keep  it.  Her  power  Increases  daily,  and  a 
stately  edifice  has  been  erected  In  the  centre  of  the  capi- 
tal to  commemorate  her  virtues.  A  few  months  before 
her  marriage  to  the  Emperor,  when  there  was  ample 
Indication  of  the  trend  of  events,  the  Emperor  published 
a  decree  which  declared  that  Lady  Om  had  become  an 
Imperial  concubine  of  the  First  Class.    This  did  not  give 

63 


KOREA 

her  Imperial  status;  but  It  conferred  upon  her  son  Im- 
perial rank.  By  reason  of  this  decree,  however,  he  will, 
at  some  future  date,  ascend  the  throne,  while  it  opened  a 
way  for  Lady  Om  to  secure  recognition  in  Korea  as  the 
lawful  spouse  of  her  royal  admirer. 


64 


CHAPTER   VI 

The  passing  of  the  Emperor — An  Imperial  pageant 

THE  Emperor  passed  one  morning  In  procession 
from  the  Imperial  Palace,  which  adjoins  the 
British  Legation  upon  its  south  wall,  to  the  newly 
erected  Temple  of  Ancestors,  the  eastern  wall  of  which 
marks  the  limits  of  the  Legation  grounds.  The  festival 
was  in  no  way  public;  yet,  such  was  the  splendour  of  the 
pageant,  that  this  progress  of  eight  hundred  yards,  leav- 
ing the  Palace  by  Its  south  gate  and  entering  again  by 
the  eastern  gate,  cost  over  two  thousand  pounds.  No 
warning  of  the  Imperial  plans  was  given  to  his  Maj- 
esty's subjects.  Just  before  the  hour  of  his  departure, 
however,  the  Emperor  expressed  the  hope  that  the  Brit- 
ish Minister  and  myself  would  be  interested  in  the  pro- 
cession, inviting  us  to  watch  the  spectacle  from  the  Le- 
gation domain.  Information  of  the  movements  of  the 
Court  was,  of  course,  bruited  abroad.  Large  crowds 
gathered  around  the  precincts  of  the  Palace  and  the 
Temple,  attracted  by  the  efforts  which  the  soldiers  were 
making  to  form  a  cordon  round  the  scene.  Hundreds 
of  soldiers  were  told  off  to  guard  the  approaches  to  the 
Temple.  One  battalion  of  infantry  was  installed  In  the 
grounds  of  the  Imperial  Korean  Customs,  another  occu- 
pied the  gates  and  garden  of  the  British  Legation. 

65 


KOREA 

Despite  the  fact  that  the  route  of  the  procession  lay 
between  the  high  walls  of  a  private  passage,  some 
twenty-five  feet  wide,  leading  from  the  offices  of  the 
Customs  to  the  grounds  of  the  Legation,  into  which  a 
postern  gate  gives  access  from  the  Palace,  and  through 
which  no  Korean  is  ever  permitted  to  pass,  soldiers,  one 
pace  apart,  faced  one  another  upon  opposite  sides  of  the 
road.  The  public,  seeing  nothing  of  the  ceremony, 
gathered  such  consolation  as  was  possible  from  the  spec- 
tacle of  the  masses  of  infantry  occupying  the  Palace 
Square.  Occasional  glimpses  of  Palace  officials  were 
also  secured,  and  the  blatant  discord  of  triumphant 
song,  with  which  the  private  musicians  of  the  Emperor 
greeted  his  arrival  and  the  passing  of  the  Court,  fell 
faintly  upon  expectant  ears.  It  is,  however,  the  proud 
privilege  of  the  Koreans  to  pay  for  these  promenades  of 
the  Court.  If  they  did  not  see  the  august  countenance 
of  his  Majesty  upon  this  occasion.  It  Is  to  be  hoped  that 
they  derived  some  consolation  for  the  heavy  taxation, 
with  which  they  are  burdened,  from  the  brave  show 
made  by  the  brand  new  uniforms  of  the  troops.  The 
plumes,  gold  lace  and  swords  of  the  officers,  and  the 
rifles  and  bayonets  of  the  men  would  have  fascinated 
any  crowd.  Until  the  moment  of  departure,  the  army 
lay  around  upon  the  road,  sleeping  In  the  dust,  or 
squatted  In  the  shade  upon  the  steps  of  buildings,  par- 
taking of  breakfast — a  decomposed  mass  of  sun-dried, 
raw  fish  and  rice  which  stunk  horribly,  but  which  they 
devoured  greedily,   tearing  it   Into   shreds  with   their 

66 


THE    PASSING   OF   THE   EMPEROR 

fingers.  Occasionally  a  loyal  citizen  brought  them  water 
or  passed  round  a  pipe,  taking  the  opportunity  to  run 
his  finger  along  the  edge  of  a  bayonet,  or  over  the  sur- 
face of  a  coat. 

The  Emperor  was  passing  In  this  festive  state  to  pay 
homage  to  the  tablets  of  his  ancestors  upon  their  trans- 
ference to  a  fresh  abode.  The  gorgeousness  of  the 
pageant  burst  upon  the  colourless  monotony  of  the  cap- 
ital with  all  the  violent  splendour  and  vivid  beauty  of 
an  Arabian  sunset.  It  was  right  and  proper  that  the 
magnificence  of  the  celebration  should  be  unrestricted. 
The  importance  of  the  occasion  was  without  parallel  in 
the  festivals  of  the  year.  The  momentary  brilliancy  of 
the  picture,  which  centres  round  the  usually  secluded 
sovereign  at  such  a  moment.  Implied  the  glorification  of 
a  dynasty,  which  has  already  occupied  the  throne  of 
Korea  for  more  than  five  centuries.  Quaint  and  stately 
as  the  pageant  was,  the  splendour  of  a  barbaric  mediae- 
valism  is  best  seen  in  processions  of  a  more  public  char- 
acter. 

The  procession  started  from  the  Palace  about  lo  a.m. 
It  presented  elements  strangely  suggestive  of  burlesque, 
romance,  and  the  humours  of  a  pantomime.  Korean 
infantry,  in  blue  uniforms,  headed  the  order  of  the  ad- 
vance from  the  Palace,  their  modern  dress  and  smart 
accoutrements  forming  the  one  link  between  the  middle 
ages  and  the  twentieth  century,  to  which  the  function 
could  lay  claim.  After  them,  running,  stumbling,  and 
chattering  noisily,  passed  a  mob  of  Palace  attendants  in 

67 


KOREA 

fantastic  hats  and  costumes  of  various  degrees  of  brill- 
iancy, long  silken  robes  of  blue,  green,  yellow,  red  and 
orange,  carrying  staves  bound  with  embroidered  stream- 
ers of  coloured  ribbons.  A  line  of  bannermen  followed, 
bearing  red  silken  flags  with  blue  characters,  also  hurry- 
ing and  stumbling  forward;  then  passed  a  file  of  pipes 
and  drums,  the  men  in  yellow  robes  with  the  shimmer  of 
gold  about  them,  streamers  fluttering  from  the  pipes, 
ribbons  decking  the  drums.  Men  bearing  arrows  in 
leather  frames  and  flags  of  green,  red  and  yellow,  were 
next.  Soldiers  in  ancient  costume,  wonderful  to  behold, 
men  with  bells  and  jingling  cymbals,  pipes  and  fans, 
Palace  eunuchs  in  Court  dress,  detachments  of  dis- 
mounted cavalry,  their  horses  not  appearing,  but  their 
riders  garbed  In  voluminous  shirts,  their  hats  covered 
with  feathers  and  wearing  high  boots,  swept  along, 
amiable  and  foolish  of  aspect. 

The  procession,  which  preceded  the  passing  of  the 
Emperor,  seemed  almost  unending.  At  every  moment 
the  sea  of  colour  broke  Into  waves  of  every  Imaginable 
hue,  as  one  motley  crowd  of  retainers,  servants,  musi- 
cians and  ofliclals  gave  place  to  another.  Important 
and  Imposing  officials  In  high-crowned  hats,  adorned 
with  crimson  tassels  festooned  with  bunches  of  feathers 
and  fastened  by  a  string  of  amber  beads  round  the 
throat,  were  pushed  along,  silent  and  helpless.  Their 
dresses  were  glaring  combinations  of  red  and  blue  and 
orange;  they  were  supported  by  men  In  green  gauze 
coats  and  followed  by  other  signal  marks  of  Korean 

68 


THE    PASSING   OF   THE   EMPEROR 

grandeur,  more  banners  and  bannermen,  flags  decorated 
with  feathers,  servants  carrying  boxes  of  refreshments, 
small  tables,  pipes  and  fire.  These  were  succeeded  by 
others  just  as  imposing,  helpless  and  beautiful  to  be- 
hold; the  breasts  and  backs  of  their  superb  robes  were 
decorated  with  satin  squares,  embroidered,  after  the 
style  of  China,  with  the  symbols  of  their  offices — ^birds 
for  civilians,  tigers  for  those  of  military  rank.  States- 
men in  their  official  robes  gave  place  to  others  in  winged 
hats  or  lofty  mitres,  gleaming  with  tinsel.  The  Com- 
mander-in-Chief, with  Japanese,  Chinese,  and  Korean 
decorations  flashing  In  the  sunshine  from  the  breast  of 
his  modern  uniform,  followed  by  his  staff  in  red  coats 
heavily  braided  with  gold  lace,  and  with  white  aigrettes 
waving  in  their  hats,  passed,  marching  proudly  at  the 
head  of  the  Imperial  body-guard.  The  final  stream  of 
colour  showed  nobles  In  blue  and  green  silk  gauze;  Im- 
perial servants  with  robes  of  yellow  silk,  their  hats  deco- 
rated with  rosettes;  more  mediaeval  costumes,  of  origi- 
nal colour  and  quaint  conception;  a  greater  multitude 
of  waving  flags;  a  group  of  silken-clad  standard-bearers 
bearing  the  Imperial  yellow  silk  flag,  the  Imperial  um- 
brella, and  other  insignia.  Then  a  final  frantic  beating 
of  drums,  a  horrid  jangling  of  bells,  a  fearful  screaming 
of  pipes,  a  riot  of  Imperious  discord  mingled  with  the 
voices  of  the  officials  shouting  orders  and  the  curses  of 
the  eunuchs,  and  finally  the  van  of  the  Imperial  cortege 
appeared,  in  a  blaze  of  streaming  yellow  light,  amid  a 
sudden  silence  in  which  one  could  hear  the  heart-beats  of 

69 


KOREA 

one's  neighbour.  The  voices  died  away;  the  scraping  of 
hurried  footsteps  alone  was  audible  as  the  Imperial 
chair  of  state,  canopied  with  yellow  silk  richly  tasselled, 
screened  with  delicate  silken  panels  of  the  same  colour 
and  bearing  wings  to  keep  off  the  sun,  was  rushed  swiftly 
and  smoothly  forward.  Thirty-two  Imperial  runners, 
clad  In  yellow,  with  double  mitres  upon  their  heads,  bore 
aloft  upon  their  shoulders  the  sacred  and  august  person 
of  his  Imperial  Majesty,  the  Emperor,  to  his  place  of 
sacrifice  and  worship  In  his  Temple  of  Ancestors. 

The  business  of  the  day  had  now  arrived.  Presently 
the  Emperor's  bearers  stopped,  and  he  alighted  at  the 
entrance  of  a  tent  of  yellow  silk,  which  had  been  erected 
at  the  angle  of  the  Palace  and  Legation  walls,  within 
the  shade  of  trees  in  the  Legation  garden.  It  was  in 
this  spot  that  his  Majesty  had  given  us  permission  to 
watch  the  passing  of  his  Court.  It  was  here,  within  a 
moment  of  his  arrival,  that  the  retinue  of  the  Crown 
Prince,  his  chair  of  red  silk  borne  upon  the  shoulders  of 
sixteen  bearers,  stopped  to  set  down  Its  princely  burden. 
The  Emperor  and  the  Crown  Prince  passed  within  the 
tent,  changing  the  Imperial  yellow  and  crimson  robes  of 
state  in  which  they  had  first  appeared  for  the  sacrificial 
yellow  silk,  and  emerging  a  little  later  to  make  obeisance 
before  the  passing  of  the  tablets  of  their  ancestors.  The 
character  of  the  procession  was  now  modified.  Soldiers 
and  courtiers,  nobles  and  dignitaries  of  the  Court,  gave 
place  to  priests  clothed  In  the  yellow  robes  of  sacrifice, 
and  chanting  In  solemn  tones  the  words  of  benediction. 

70 


AN    IMPERIAL   PAGEANT 

The  screaming  of  pipes  took  on  fresh  vigour,  rising  and 
falling  in  shrill  cadence,  until  the  air  vibrated  with  con- 
flicting discords.  Men,  solemn  of  visage,  their  yellow 
skirts  swaying  with  the  frenzy  of  their  movements, 
swept  past  the  throne,  a  surge  of  song  rising  to  their 
lips  expressive  of  the  passionate  despair  and  lamentation 
which  (should  have)  filled  their  souls.  They  disap- 
peared, a  mocking  echo  haunting  their  retreating  foot- 
steps. Again  the  music  of  the  priests  broke  forth  in 
noisy  triumph,  heralding  the  presence  of  the  twelve  an- 
cestral tablets,  each  carried  by  eight  men  in  chairs  of 
sacrificial  yellow,  which  demanded  the  homage  of  the 
expectant  pair.  One  came,  moving  slowly  in  a  burst 
of  solemn  song.  The  Emperor,  his  son  the  Crown 
Prince,  and  the  baby  Prince,  the  offspring  of  Lady  Om, 
dropped  to  the  earth.  For  a  moment  they  rested  upon 
their  bended  knees,  with  crossed  hands,  in  a  reverent 
attitude,  as  their  own  proud  heads  sank  to  the  dust  be- 
fore the  gilded  burdens  in  the  sacred  chairs.  Twelve 
times  they  passed  before  the  Imperial  group,  twelve 
times  each  Prince  humbled  himself,  the  circle  of  sup- 
porting nobles  and  attendant  eunuchs  assisting  them. 

It  was  the  first  appearance  of  the  baby  Prince. 
Scarcely  old  enough  to  toddle,  he  was  of  necessity  aided 
in  his  devotions  by  the  chief  eunuch,  who  pressed  him  to 
his  knees,  placing  a  restraining  hand  upon  his  head,  a 
guiding  hand  upon  his  shoulder.  The  babe  followed 
everything  with  wide-open,  innocent  eyes,  becoming 
tired  and  fidgety  before  the  ceremony  had  concluded. 

71 


KOREA 

The  demeanour  of  the  Imperial  pair  showed  every  sign 
of  reverence  and  devotion.  The  absolute  sincerity  of 
their  humiliation  impressed  those  who  watched  the  scene 
with  feelings  of  astonishment.  The  emotion  of  the  Em- 
peror was  plainly  manifest;  he  had  paled  visibly,  his 
whole  being  centred  upon  the  objects  of  his  veneration. 
When  the  ceremony  had  ended  the  twelve  chairs 
turned  towards  the  Ancestral  Temple,  and,  as  the  Em- 
peror ensconced  himself  in  his  yellow  chair  of  state,  and 
the  Crown  Prince,  following  the  example  of  his  father, 
mounted  to  his  seat  of  crimson  silk,  the  babe  rode  upon 
the  back  of  the  chief  eunuch,  crowing  with  boyish  and 
infantile  delight.  Once  again  the  flourish  of  the  musi- 
cians, the  rattle  of  the  drums,  the  screaming  of  the  fifes 
and  pipes  broke  forth.  The  procession  was  moving, 
priests  and  nobles,  courtiers  and  Palace  servants  follow- 
ing in  the  train  of  the  Emperor. 

The  procession  of  the  Emperor  pressed  forward  to 
the  temple,  the  tablets,  halting  before  the  Temple  of 
Ancestors,  while  the  Emperor  and  the  two  Princes  pro- 
ceeded to  the  Hall  of  Sacrifice,  where  offerings  of  live 
sheep  were  burned,  and  baskets  of  fruits  and  flowers 
presented  before  the  altars.  The  spirits  of  the  illus- 
trious dead  thus  propitiated,  the  Emperor  returned  to 
the  sacred  chairs,  once  again  paying  his  devotion  to  the 
tablets.  One  by  one  each  was  borne  from  its  chair  to 
the  receptacle  prepared  for  its  future  keeping.  Panels 
of  yellow  silk  screened  them;  no  eye  was  permitted  to 
gaze  upon  them,  nor  any  hand  to  touch  them,  as  each, 

72 


AN   IMPERIAL   PAGEANT 

wrapped  in  Its  inviolate  sanctity  of  yellow  silk,  passed 
from  its  chair  of  state  to  its  holy  place.  Priests  attended 
them;  the  throne  followed  In  their  wake,  the  entire 
Court,  the  highest  nobles  and  statesmen  in  the  land, 
bowed  down  to  them.  An  atmosphere  at  once  devo- 
tional and  filial  prevailed,  for  the  cult  of  Ancestor  Wor- 
ship epitomises  the  loftiest  aspirations  of  the  Korean. 
It  governs  the  actions  of  a  parent  towards  his  child; 
controls  the  conduct  of  a  child  towards  its  parent. 

The  ceremony  over,  the  scene  within  the  Temple 
became  more  brilliant.  Ladles  from  the  Palace  ap- 
peared. Cakes  and  wine  were  produced,  and  the  Em- 
peror and  Crown  Prince  resumed  their  robes  of  state, 
discarding  the  sacrificial  garments.  The  Lady  Om  came 
to  congratulate  the  Emperor,  attended  by  a  retinue  of 
gaily-dressed  Palace  women  and  slaves,  their  hair  piled 
high,  their  shimmering  silken  skirts  trailing  in  graceful 
folds  about  them.  The  Court  musicians  played;  the 
Court  singers  sang,  and  the  prettiest  women  swayed  in 
a  joyous  dance.  Within  the  private  apartments  of  the 
sovereign  there  was  feasting  and  merriment.  His 
Majesty  was  himself  again.  The  world,  which  he  had 
shown  us,  and  in  which  we  had  been  so  Interested, 
changed  quickly.  Looking  at  the  disorderly  scramble  of 
the  return,  the  scene  that  had  passed  before  us  seemed 
like  a  dream.  Yet,  for  a  few  hours,  we  had  been  living 
in  the  shadow  of  the  middle  ages. 


73 


CHAPTER   VII 

Sketch  of  Mr.  McLeavy  Brown — The  Question  of  the  Cus- 
toms— The  suggested  Loan 

IT  Is  perhaps  curious  that  the  man  who  has  held  the 
Korean  State  together,  during  the  past  few  years, 
should  be  British — one  of  those  sons  of  the  Empire, 
upon  whose  work  the  present  generation  looks  with  sat- 
isfaction. It  is  nearly  thirty  years  ago  since  Mr. 
McLeavy  Brown  made  his  appearance  In  China.  To- 
day, among  Englishmen  whose  reputations  are  associ- 
ated with  the  problems  and  politics  of  the  Far  East,  his 
name  stands  out  almost  as  prominently  as  that  of  his 
colleague,  Sir  Robert  Hart,  the  Inspector-General  of 
the  Imperial  Maritime  Customs  of  China.  Seconded 
from  the  Chinese  Customs  for  special  duty,  Mr. 
McLeavy  Brown  has  devoted  many  years  of  his  life  to 
the  financial  difficulties  which  beset  Korea,  holding  at 
first  the  dual  position  of  Treasurer-General  and  Chief 
Commlsloner  of  Customs.  Within  the  last  few  years, 
Mr.  McLeavy  Brown's  activity  has  been  confined  to  the 
administration  of  the  Customs  Service,  where,  though 
deprived  of  the  unique  and  Influential  position  filled  by 
him  as  financial  adviser  to  the  Emperor,  he  has  suc- 

74 


SKETCH  OF  MR.  McLEAVY  BROWN 

ceeded  in  accomplishing  invaluable  work  for  the 
country. 

A  man  may  be  judged  by  the  character  of  those  who 
gather  round  him,  and  when,  weary  of  the  carping  and 
pettiness  that  prevail  in  Seoul,  one  turns  to  the  service 
which  Mr.  McLeavy  Brown  represents,  it  is  to  find  his 
colleagues  animated  by  a  quiet  enthusiasm,  and  a  spirit 
of  generous  devotion,  and  loyalty  to  his  principles  and 
policy.  Unfortunately,  his  supporters  are  not  in  the 
capital,  and  he  can  derive  no  encouragement  from  their 
sympathy.  Their  sphere  of  work  lies  in  the  treaty 
ports,  but  he  is  content  to  remain  in  Seoul  always  fight- 
ing, in  grim  and  stoical  silence,  against  the  absurd  ex- 
travagances of  the  Court,  and  the  infamous  corruption 
of  the  officials.  So  long  as  he  perseveres  in  this  duty, 
just  so  long  will  he  be  hampered  and  thwarted  in  all 
quarters.  The  very  opposition  which  he  encounters, 
however,  is  no  unemphatic  testimony  to  the  exceeding 
and  exceptional  value  of  the  work  which  he  has  already 
achieved,  in  the  face  of  every  obstacle  to  systematic 
progress  and  reform,  that  the  craft  and  cunning  of  offi- 
cialdom can  devise. 

The  animus  which  prevails  against  Mr.  McLeavy 
Brown  occasions,  to  those  who  are  new  to  Seoul,  senti- 
ments of  profound  astonishment  and  dismay,  but  after 
the  first  feeling  of  strangeness  has  worn  off,  and  it  be- 
comes possible  to  grasp  the  peculiar  and  complex  vari- 
ety of  people  who  have  gathered  in  the  capital  of  the 
Hermit  Kingdom,  the  causes  responsible  for  the  exist- 

75. 


KOREA 

ence  of  such  an  opinion  are  very  plainly  revealed.  Apart 
from  the  Legations,  there  are  few  foreigners,  not  even 
excepting  the  representatives  of  the  very  miscellaneous 
collection  of  American  missionaries,  who  have  not  come 
to  Seoul  from  motives  of  self-interest,  which  bring  them 
into  collision,  directly  or  indirectly,  with  the  Chief  Com- 
missioner of  the  Customs  in  his  official  capacity.  If  no 
longer  the  financial  adviser  of  the  Government,  his  coun- 
sel is  sought  as  occasion  arises ;  although  his  advice  Is  not 
necessarily  followed,  it  frequently  happens  that  the  influ- 
ence of  the  Chief  Commissioner  of  the  Customs  becomes 
the  controlling  factor  in  the  negotiations  between  a  be- 
wildered and  impecunious  Court  and  an  importunate 
concession-hunter.  Moreover,  cases  may  occur  when  an 
upright  regard  for  the  interests  of  the  kingdom  makes 
it  incumbent  upon  Mr.  McLeavy  Brown  to  urge  the 
rejection  of  proposals,  which  have  not  come  through  the 
channels  of  his  own  office.  Such  a  variation  of  the  or- 
thodox method  of  application  may  happen  any  day  in 
Seoul.  While  this  attempted  exercise  of  a  power  of  veto 
does  not  endear  him  to  the  seeker  after  Ministerial 
"  considerations,''  the  impersonal  spirit,  in  which  he  dis- 
charges the  functions  of  his  office,  atones  for  any  excep- 
tional interference  he  may  deem  necessary.  Much  of 
the  feeling  which  actuates  foreigners  and  officials 
against  Mr.  McLeavy  Brown,  therefore,  is  based  upon 
a  thoughtless  disregard  for  the  elementary  facts  in  his 
very  delicate  position.  There  is,  of  course,  no  sugges- 
tion against  his  honour.     In  a  community,  accustomed 

76 


SKETCH  OF  MR.  McLEAVY  BROWN 

to  the  financial  backsliding  which  appears  to  be  an  in- 
evitable preliminary  to  any  concession,  the  exponent  of  a 
policy  of  economy  and  straight  dealing  always  provokes 
the  strongest  animosity  in  those  about  him. 

A  more  emotional  man  than  the  Chief  Commissioner 
would  have  tired  of  the  thankless  part  which  he  is  com- 
pelled to  play.  Years  of  laborious  work,  and  the  habit, 
which  he  has  acquired  in  the  isolated  state  in  which  he 
lives,  of  concentrating  his  energies  upon  the  subject  be- 
fore him,  enable  him  to  school  himself  against  the  trials 
of  his  situation.  He  treats  every  one  with  unfailing 
frankness  and  directness,  but  the  kindly  instincts  which 
illuminate  his  private  hfe  are  submerged  in  the  cares  and 
worry  of  his  official  position.  During  business  hours 
he  becomes  the  cold,  irresponsive  machine  of  State;  his 
whole  imagination  and  Ingenuity  focused  upon  the  ne- 
cessity of  checking  those  who  would  Incite  their  Sover- 
eign to  acts  subversive  of  the  principles  of  financial  rec- 
titude, which  Mr.  McLeavy  Brown  would  fain  see 
encouraged. 

Only  those  who  have  had  experience  of  Korea  can 
thoroughly  appreciate  the  fertility  of  the  Korean  official 
in  inventing  new  schemes  by  which  public  money  may 
be  appropriated  to  his  private  uses.  If  the  condition 
of  the  finances  had  not  already  made  the  practice  of 
economy  imperative,  this  tendency  would  justify  the  de- 
termination to  deny  the  means  of  peculation  to  officials. 
Mr.  McLeavy  Brown  has  therefore  brought  Into  accord 
the  necessity  of  economy,  which  underlies  the  existence 

77 


^  KOREA 

of  the  Customs,  with  the  principles  of  the  system  upon 
which  he  administers  the  service.  It  is,  In  the  matter 
of  the  foreign  staff  of  the  Korean  Customs,  impossible 
for  Korean  officials  to  take  exception  to  the  standard  of 
payment  by  which  the  services  of  these  foreigners  are 
compensated.  If  this  all-pervading  retrenchment  makes 
employment  In  the  Korean  Customs  exceptionally  un- 
satisfactory to  Its  minor  foreign  officials,  a  very  clear 
reason  for  the  low  payment  Is  nevertheless  found  in 
the  narrow  margin  which  divides  the  total  revenue  from 
the  total  expenditure.  Moreover,  the  Chief  Commis- 
sioner Is  himself  the  chief  sufferer. 

Mr.  McLeavy  Brown  has  long  been  an  enigma  In 
Seoul.  Although  the  variety  of  his  gifts  and  the  hos- 
pitable quality  of  his  nature  make  him  an  important 
element  in  the  life  of  the  capital,  there  are  few  who  care 
to  study  the  man  and  his  movements  Intelligently.  Mr. 
McLeavy  Brown  possesses  many  moods;  and  the  Isola- 
tion in  which  he  Is  placed,  by  the  absence  of  any  sym- 
pathy between  himself  and  the  people  among  whom  he 
lives,  renders  the  circumstances  of  his  position  almost 
pathetic.  When,  in  1896,  he  refused  to  accept  any  sal- 
ary for  the  hopeless  and  onerous  post  of  Financial 
Comptroller  of  the  Imperial  Treasury,  the  foreign  com- 
munity of  Seoul  were  astounded.  This  refusal  to  bur- 
den still  further  the  resources  of  an  exhausted  country 
is,  however,  an  Index  to  the  guiding  principles  of  his 
life.  There  is  no  dissembling  in  his  transactions.  Al- 
though he  may  temper  an  111  wind  with  promises,  the 

78 


SKETCH  OF  MR.  McLEAVY  BROWN 

continuity  of  his  decision  Is  maintained,  and  he  attempts 
to  carry  out  Independently  and  honestly  anything  to 
which  he  may  have  pledged  himself.  He  is  indefati- 
gable In  his  work;  indomitable  in  his  perservance,  cool 
and  determined.  A  barrister  by  profession,  he  devotes 
himself  to  the  minutiae  of  his  service  with  an  attention 
which  discloses  his  legal  training.  In  his  estimate  of  a 
person,  no  less  than  a  situation,  he  seldom  errs. 

In  his  official  life  he  represents  a  type  of  Englishman 
that  Is  rapidly  disappearing  from  our  public  services. 
.His  private  life  reflects  the  culture  and  the  grace  of  an 
attractive  personality.  They  say.  In  Seoul,  that  Mr. 
McLeavy  Brown  Is  more  skilful  as  a  diplomatist  than  as 
an  administrator;  and  his  brilliant  conversational  pow- 
ers give  some  colour  to  the  assertion.  Upon  arrival  In 
Seoul,  newcomers  are  apt  to  hear  that  **  Brown  Is  a 
walking  encyclopaedia."  He  speaks,  reads  and  writes 
with  equal  facility  French,  German,  Italian  and  Chinese. 
It  will  be  remembered  that  he  Is  In  the  service  of  the 
Korean  Government,  a  sphere  of  utility  and  activity 
which  demands  fluency  In  yet  another  language.  His 
library  attests  the  breadth  of  his  culture;  It  numbers 
some  7000  volumes,  and  fills  the  walls  of  the  rooms  and 
corridors  of  his  house  at  Seoul  from  floor  to  ceiling. 
Boxes  of  new  books  arrive  by  every  mail.  When  he 
reads  them  It  Is  difficult  to  conjecture.  At  night,  as  one 
strolls  from  the  British  Legation  to  the  Station  Hotel, 
the  lights  in  his  study  window  may  be  seen  burning 
brightly.    He  Is  believed  to  sit  up  with  his  books  very 

79 


KOREA 

often  until  dawn.  It  would  be  typical  of  this  silent  self- 
contained  man  If  he  found  In  the  pleasures  of  his  library 
the  antidote  to  much  which  takes  place  In  Seoul. 

When  his  Imperial  Majesty  was  pleased  to  demand 
the  private  residence  and  official  premises  of  his  Chief 
Commissioner  of  Customs,  there  was  much  perturbation 
In  Seoul  about  the  disturbances,  which  were  expected  to 
take  place  upon  the  expiration  of  the  Emperor's  ulti- 
matum. Preparations  were  made  for  such  a  contin- 
gency, and  four  British  men-of-war  under  Admiral 
Bruce  appeared  at  Chemulpo.  The  eventful  day  passed 
quietly,  however,  and  excitement  gave  place  to  no  small 
amount  of  disappointment  among  the  European  com- 
munity. Mr.  McLeavy  Brown  remained  In  possession 
of  his  usual  quarters,  the  whole  question  of  a  change  in 
the  location  of  the  Customs  having  been  reserved  by  the 
officials  of  the  Court.  Unfortunately,  the  demands  of 
the  Court  could  only  be  contested  In  so  far  as  they  con- 
tinued to  be  peremptory  In  their  nature.  When,  later 
due  warning  was  given  to  the  Chief  Commissioner  and 
a  fresh  domicile  appointed,  as  a  servant  of  the  Crown 
Mr.  McLeavy  Brown  was  unable  to  Ignore  the  man- 
date. Prior  to  this  notice,  the  Emperor  had  Insisted, 
very  foolishly,  upon  the  immediate  evacuation  of  the 
Customs  buildings,  a  demand  compliance  with  which 
was  impossible,  and  in  resistance  to  which  Mr.  Mc- 
Leavy Brown  was  very  properly  supported  by  Mr.  J.  G. 
Gubblns,  C.M.G.,  then  acting  Consul-General  to  Korea. 

After  the  murder  of  the  Queen  In  1895,  the  Korean 

80 


THE   QUESTION    OF   THE   CUSTOMS 

Court  fled  from  the  old  Palace,  In  the  least  healthy  part 
of  the  city,  to  the  vicinity  of  the  British  and  American 
Legations,  and  built  there  a  new  Palace  in  a  safer  and 
more  pleasant  locality.  But  the  new  Palace  Is  over- 
looked by  the  British  Legation  and  by  the  residence  of 
Mr.  McLeavy  Brown.  The  Emperor,  spurred  on  by 
his  eunuchs,  had  cast  envious  glances  on  the  dwellings  of 
these  foreigners,  and  not  unnaturally  decided  that  these 
properties  would  make  a  very  pleasing  addition  to  the 
Palace  which  he  is  now  constructing.  Unhappily,  there 
was  reason  to  suspect  that.  In  turning  the  Chief  Com- 
missioner out  of  his  house,  the  Emperor,  or  rather  Lady 
Om,  who  desired  the  house,  and  Yi  Yong-Ik,  who  cov- 
eted the  Customs,  hoped  at  the  same  time  to  expel  him 
from  the  country.  That  the  attempt  to  oust  Mr. 
McLeavy  Brown  from  his  home  really  aimed  at  remov- 
ing him  from  office  can  hardly  be  doubted.  When  the 
house  question  rose,  Mr.  McLeavy  Brown  was  given 
exactly  two  days  notice — from  the  19th  to  the  21st 
March — to  move  out.  When  he  refused  to  accept  such 
an  intimation,  force  was  threatened,  but  averted  by  the 
Intervention  of  the  British  charge  d'affaires.  In  the 
end,  Mr.  McLeavy  Brown's  compound  was  entered  by 
a  few  hangers-on  of  the  Palace,  who  were  easily  ejected 
by  the  orders  of  the  Chief  Commissioner  of  the  Cus- 
toms. These  creatures  then  tore  their  clothes  and  ran 
crying  to  the  Palace  that  they  had  been  beaten  and  oth- 
erwise shamefully  ill-used.  As  a  result,  the  dismissal  of 
the  Chief  Commissioner  was  demanded.     Mr.  Gubblns 

81 


KOREA 

took  the  matter  up  with  great  promptness,  and  agreed 
that,  upon  certain  conditions,  which  included  a  proper 
notice  to  quit  and  the  choice  of  new  sites,  the  Emperor 
might  acquire  both  the  British  Legation  and  the  Cus- 
toms buildings,  which  were  apparently  necessary  to  the 
completion  of  the  new  Palace.  As  it  happens,  the  Brit- 
ish Legation,  which  directly  overlooks  the  half-finished 
Palace,  Is  far  more  necessary  to  the  Emperor's  peace  of 
mind  than  the  Customs  buildings,  which  are  upon  a 
lower  level.  It  is  obvious,  therefore,  that  the  attack 
was  directed  more  against  Mr.  McLeavy  Brown,  by  a 
posse  of  Court  officials,  than  against  his  house.  Never- 
theless, It  has  always  been  apparent,  since  the  Emperor 
came  over  to  the  shelter  of  the  Legations,  that  there 
could  be  no  sufficient  accommodation  for  him  In  the 
Foreign  quarter  without  encroaching  on  the  grounds  of 
Legations.  The  Legations  have  a  delightful  situation 
on  the  only  real  eminence  in  the  central  part  of  Seoul, 
and  the  Emperor,  now  that  he  has  come,  must  either  be 
content  with  a  malarial  situation,  at  the  feet,  as  It  were, 
of  the  foreigners,  or  absorb  the  Legation  grounds  and 
send  their  tenants  elsewhere.  Already  he  has  displaced 
the  German  Minister.  Sooner  or  later  the  British,  and 
perhaps  the  American,  will  go  too;  and  the  Palace  will 
then  cover  the  whole  hill,  save  the  site  of  the  Russian 
Legation,  whose  flag  will  still  wave  a  little  above  the 
Imperial  standard  of  Korea. 

No  sooner  had  a  settlement  been  attained  upon  the 
question  at  Issue  between  the  Court  and  the  Chief  Com- 

82 


THE    SUGGESTED    LOAN 

missloner  of  the  Customs,  than  there  came  the  announce- 
ment that  a  loan  of  five  million  yen  had  been  arranged 
between  the  Government  and  the  Yunnan  Syndicate, 
upon  the  security  of  the  revenue  of  the  Customs.  This 
at  once  compromised  the  authority  of  the  Chief  Com- 
missioner, who,  by  virtue  of  his  office,  exercises  absolute 
control  over  the  revenues.  It  should  be  understood  that 
the  loan  had  nothing  whatever  to  do  with  the  question 
of  Mr.  McLeavy  Brown's  house.  The  original  pro- 
posals were  first  mooted  a  year  before  the  more  recent 
trouble.  The  Yunnan  Syndicate,  a  French  company 
registered  In  London,  is  supported  almost  wholly  by 
French  capital.  It  Is  generally  understood  that  the 
main  object  of  the  loan  was  to  obtain  a  weapon  by  which 
unlimited  concessions  might  be  extorted.  The  manoeu- 
vre was  not  altogether  successful.  The  Yunnan  Syn- 
dicate, by  the  terms  of  the  agreement,  bound  itself  to 
lend  the  Korean  Government  five  million  yen  In  gold 
and  silver  bullion  at  5  ^  per  cent.,  the  loan  to  be  sub- 
ject to  a  charge  of  10  per  cent,  for  commission,  and  to 
be  repaid  In  Instalments  stretching  over  twenty-five 
years.  In  case  the  Korean  Government  were  unable  to 
repay  the  money  out  of  the  ordinary  sources  of  revenue, 
the  Customs  revenue  had  been  pledged  as  security.  The 
agreement  was  signed  by  Pak,  the  Minister  of  Foreign 
Affairs,  and  YI  Yong-ik,  the  Minister  of  Finance,  on  the 
one  hand,  and  by  M.  Cazalls,  agent  of  the  company, 
and  M.  Colin  de  Plancy,  French  Minister  at  Seoul,  on 
the  other.     The  document  left  many  points  open.     It 

83 


KOREA 

was  particularly  vague  in  that  no  date  was  fixed  for  the 
delivery  of  the  gold  and  silver  bullion  at  Chemulpo.  It 
was  therefore  argued,  with  obvious  reason,  that  the 
Syndicate  might  turn  this  oversight  to  account  by  sim- 
ply refusing  to  deliver  the  money  until  certain  conces- 
sions had  been  granted. 

M.  Cazalis,  the  agent  of  the  Yunnan  Syndicate,  Lim- 
ited, was  indignant  that  he  should  find  himself  opposed 
both  by  Mr.  Gubbins  and  Mr.  McLeavy  Brown,  who, 
according  to  his  view,  followed  the  Japanese  lead  in 
suspecting  Russian  intrigue.  There  is  no  reason,  how- 
ever, to  believe  that  the  British  charge  d'affaires  based 
his  objections  upon  any  such  grounds.  The  scheme  of 
the  Yunnan  Syndicate  was  quite  iniquitous  enough  to 
meet  with  opposition  for  prima  facie  reasons.  Here  are 
the  facts  of  the  case  as  stated  by  the  representative  of 
the  company.  The  Yunnan  Syndicate,  without  consult- 
ing the  Chief  Commissioner  of  the  Customs,  the  Japan- 
ese Minister,  or  the  British  Minister,  secretly  persuaded 
the  Korean  Government  to  borrow  five  million  yen  in 
gold  and  silver  bullion  at  5  >^  per  cent.,  giving  the  Cus- 
toms revenue  as  security.  M.  Cazalis  argued  that  it 
was  necessary  to  carry  the  matter  through  with  secresy, 
because  it  would  have  been  impossible  to  procure  any 
signatures  to  the  document,  if  the  affair  had  been  con- 
ducted publicly,  with  the  full  knowledge  of  the  Chief 
Commissioner  of  the  Customs.  In  other  words,  he 
admitted  that  the  scheme  was  such  as  would  never  have 
commended  itself  to  Mr.  McLeav}^  Brown,  who  was 

84 


THE   SUGGESTED    LOAN 

absolutely  Impartial  and  without  Interest  in  the  mat- 
ter. 

In  the  meantime,  It  Is  as  well  to  note  that  the  loan 
aimed  at  creating  a  position  for  French  Interests  In 
Korea.  In  view  of  the  attempt  of  Russia  to  acquire  an 
open  and  Ice-free  port  for  her  own  purposes,  and  the 
distinct  understanding  existing  between  the  French  and 
Russian  Governments  with  regard  to  Russia's  Asiatic 
policy.  Great  Britain  could  not  disregard  any  possible 
development.  At  that  moment  French  activity  In  Ko- 
rea may  not  have  Involved  any  direct  menace  to  our  own 
interests.  Nevertheless,  any  combination  of  circum- 
stances which  gave  to  French  and  Russian  Influence  a 
predominance  In  the  administration  of  the  country, 
could  scarcely  fail  to  develop  Incidents,  against  which  it 
is  our  manifest  duty  to  guard.  And  It  is  perhaps  curi- 
ous, moreover,  that  the  man  who  was  the  prime  mover 
in  the  Intrigue  to  dispossess  Mr.  McLeavy  Brown  of  his 
house  should  have  been  the  very  one  to  arrange  the  loan 
from  the  Yunnan  Syndicate  with  M.  Cazalls. 

If  the  wisdom  and  necessity  of  a  loan  of  five  millions 
had  been  assured,  there  are  many  directions  in  Korea  in 
which  such  a  sum  could  be  most  profitably  spent.  With 
the  revenue  of  the  Customs  as  the  guarantee,  there 
would  have  been  no  difl'iculty  In  securing  more  advan- 
tageous conditions  than  those  of  the  contract.  The 
terms  were  preposterous.  Subsidiary  proposals,  as  to 
which  no  conclusion  was  then  reached,  further  de- 
manded the  lease  of  the  Pyong-yang  coal-mines,  the 

85 


KOREA 

control  of  forty-four  additional  mines,  the  purchase  of 
French  mining  plant,  the  engagement  of  French  mining 
experts,  and  involved  minor  stipulations,  which  were  in 
themselves  objectionable  to  the  Court,  while  giving  to 
French  interests  in  Korea  an  unwarranted  and  undesi- 
rable preponderance.  The  uses  to  which  it  was  alleged 
that  the  loan  would  be  put  were  precisely  those  which 
are  actually  most  necessary.  Unanimous  support  for  the 
loan  would  have  been  won  if  there  had  been  the  slight- 
est reason  to  hope  for  the  faithful  observance  by  the 
Court  of  its  pledges.  Unhappily,  there  is  no  prospect 
that  any  very  appreciable  proportion  of  the  loan  will 
be  expended  upon  the  objects  on  which  such  stress  was 
laid,  objects  which  are  potent  and  vital  factors  in  the 
economic  development  of  the  kingdom.  The  loan  was 
handed  over  in  bullion;  in  the  ratio  of  one-third  silver 
and  two-thirds  gold,  ostensibly  that  a  National  bank 
may  be  Inaugurated  and  the  present  nickel  coinage  re- 
placed by  gold  and  silver  tokens.  This  is  eminently 
laudable.  If  the  small  dimensions  of  the  loan  rendered 
such  a  thing  feasible,  the  conversion  of  the  national 
money  would  be  of  incalculable  benefit  to  the  financial 
credit  of  the  Government  and  the  country  In  general. 
But  It  must  be  remembered  that  one  of  the  reasons  for 
contracting  the  last  Japanese  loan  was  to  provide  a 
nickel  coinage  exchangeable  at  par  with  the  Japanese 
and  Mexican  silver  tokens.  Unhappily,  this  same  coin- 
age Is  now  at  a  discount  of  120  per  cent,  for  one  hun- 
dred Japanese  cents  gold.      Examination  has  proved 

86 


THE    SUGGESTED    LOAN 

that  the  intrinsic  value  of  one  dollar  nickel  of  Korean 
five  cent  pieces — at  that  time  the  only  unit  struck — is 
only  one-eighteenth  of  its  face  value  as  against  the 
Japanese  gold  standards  of  currency.  The  balance  was 
"  squeezed."  It  Is  likewise  Impossible  to  make  provi- 
sion for  the  legitimate  and  honourable  expenditure  of 
this  new  loan.  Quite  recently  there  has  been  a  large 
Issue  of  one-cent  copper  pieces.  These  coins  sustain  a 
better  ratio  to  the  yen  than  the  nickel  currency;  as  a 
matter  of  fact  the  Intrinsic  value  of  the  copper  coinage  is 
so  much  greater  than  the  nickel  money  that  there  is  a 
standard  of  exchange  between  them.  At  present  the 
nickel,  compared  with  the  copper,  token  Is  quoted  at  1 2 
per  cent,  discount. 


87 


CHAPTER   VIII 

Foreign  action  in  Korea — Exhausted  Exchequer — Taxes — 
Budgets — Debased  currency — The  Dai  Ichi  ginko — 
Dishonest  officials 

THE  events,  which  have  led  up  to  the  present  com- 
plex condition  of  Korean  politics,  originated  in 
the  attempt  of  the  Russians  to  secure  control  of  the  Cus- 
toms and  Finance  of  the  Empire  in  the  autumn  of  1897. 
As  the  effort  of  the  Russian  Minister  of  that  time,  M. 
de  Speyer,  was  only  in  part  successful,  his  immediate 
successor,  M.  Matunine,  the  present  representative,  M. 
Pavloff,  and  his  confrere  of  the  French  Legation, 
M.  Colin  de  Plancy,  have  in  the  interval  consistently 
directed  their  diplomacy  to  the  completion  of  the  task. 
Their  inability  to  force  compliance  with  their  demands 
upon  the  Korean  Government  has  embittered  their  ac- 
tion towards  the  British  Minister  and  the  Chief  Com- 
missioner of  the  Customs.  In  the  prosecution  of  a 
work,  at  once  discreditable  and  inspired  by  very  petty 
prejudices,  no  single  diplomatic  device,  which  could 
serve  their  purpose,  has  been  omitted  from  their  policy. 
The  check,  which  the  plans  of  the  Franco-Russian-Ko- 
rean party  received  In  consequence  of  British  action 
has  only  retarded  their  development  for  the  moment. 

88 


FOREIGN   ACTION    IN    KOREA 

It  does  not  perceptibly  relieve  the  situation,  nor  make 
the  office  of  the  Chief  Commissioner  more  comfortable 
or  the  path  of  the  British  Minister  more  easy  to  follow. 
Indeed,  it  is  quite  certain  that  the  opposition  of  the 
Russian  and  French  Ministers  to  British  activity  will 
become  more  vigorous  in  the  future. 

The  assistance  accorded  by  the  British  Government  to 
Mr.  Gubbins  during  the  recent  crisis,  has  done  much  to 
dispel  from  the  minds  of  the  Korean  those  Illusions 
which  our  past  Indifference  had  created.  It  Is  improb- 
able that  quite  identical  methods  will  be  employed  In 
any  future  attempt  of  the  Court  to  oust  Mr.  McLeavy 
Brown  from  his  position.  If  the  Court  gave  way  In  the 
face  of  the  British  demonstration,  the  tact  and  consid- 
eration for  the  Interests  of  both  parties,  which  Mr. 
Gubbins  subsequently  displayed,  materially  contributed 
to  the  restoration  of  the  status  quo.  Upon  the  other 
hand,  the  apathy  of  the  British  Government  In  failing  to 
protect  Mr.  McLeavy  Brown  when  he  was  deprived  of 
the  Comptrollership  of  the  Finances  at  the  instigation  of 
the  Russian  Minister,  In  1897,  was  of  course  conducive 
to  the  late  disturbances.  The  two  offices  are  so  closely 
related,  and  the  masterful  and  aggressive  spirit  of  the 
Franco-Russian  policy  is  such,  that  the  accession  of  a 
Russian  or  French  nominee  to  the  Chief  Commissioner- 
ship  of  the  Customs  would  imply  their  subsequent  fusion 
to  the  complete  obliteration  of  British  influence.  This, 
of  course,  should  be  Impossible;  and  it  would  be.  If  the 
British  Government  would  awaken  to  the  importance 

89 


KOREA 

of  maintaining  unimpaired  Its  prestige  In  Korea.  We 
have  little  material  Interest  In  Korea,  but  It  must  not  be 
forgotten  that  our  position  In  the  kingdom  should  be 
superior  to  that  of  France,  and  equal  to  that  of  Russia. 
If  it  were  not  that  France  Is  the  partisan  and  ally  of 
Russia  in  Korea,  as  well  as  elsewhere,  there  would  be 
no  occasion  to  do  aught  but  support  benevolently  the 
policy  of  Japan,  without  unnecessarily  endorsing  the 
aggressiveness  which  distinguishes  the  attitude  of  the 
Island  Empire  to  its  neighbour.  But  If  we  wish  to  pre- 
serve our  position  we  must  put  a  little  more  vigour  Into 
our  policy,  and,  while  maintaining  our  working  agree- 
ment with  Japan,  proceed  to  guarantee  the  integrity  of 
our  own  interests.  These  would  be  best  served  by  in- 
sisting upon  the  retention  of  a  British  nominee  in  the 
supervision  of  the  Korean  Maritime  Customs.  Our 
action  in  this  respect  would  meet  with  the  unqualified 
approval  of  Japan  and  the  United  States  of  America, 
whose  trading  interests,  equally  with  our  own,  justify 
predominance  in  this  control. 

The  financial  embarrassment  of  the  Korean  Govern- 
ment, at  the  present  time,  is  the  outcome  of  the  abnor- 
mal extravagance  of  the  Court.  Anything  which  would 
tend  to  Increase  the  load  of  debt  with  which  the  Em- 
peror encumbers  the  dwindling  resources  of  the  national 
wealth,  is  neither  pohtlc  nor  desirable.  The  sources  of 
the  Imperial  revenue  resemble  In  lesser  degree  those 
which  prevail  in  China.  There  are  the  Land  Tax,  paid 
no  longer  In  grain,  which  returned  four  and  a  half  of 

90 


TAXES   AND    BUDGETS 

the  seven  million  yen  odd,  composing  the  total  domestic 
revenue  in  1901;  a  House  Tax,  assessed  capriciously 
and  evaded  by  the  practice  of  a  little  discreet  bribery; 
the  net  Customs  revenue,  which  was  returned  for  1901 
at  more  than  one  million  and  a  quarter  yen  (1,325,414 
yen;  £135,303  sterling  at  exchange  of  25.  o^i.),  and 
the  proceeds  of  the  various  concessions,  monopolies, 
mines,  and  mint,  and  the  sums  derived  from  such  miscel- 
laneous and  irregular  taxation  as  may  suggest  itself  to 
that  keen-witted  Minister  Yi  Yong-ik. 

Taxation  is  heavy  and  relentless.  The  list  of  the 
more  important  objects,  upon  which  an  impost  is  levied, 
includes,  in  addition  to  the  land,  customs  and  house 
taxes,  salt,  tobacco,  fish,  fur,  lumber  lands,  minerals, 
ginseng,  minting,  cargo-boats,  guilds,  licences,  paper, 
cowhides,  pawnbroking,  etc.  In  more  recent  times  cer- 
tain taxes  have  become  obsolete.  But  this  list,  however, 
does  not  by  any  means  exhaust  the  means  by  which  the 
Emperor  contrives  to  make  his  subjects  ''  pay  the  piper.'' 
Quite  subsidiary  to  the  regular  cases,  but  of  great  value 
in  themselves,  are  the  donations  which  are  sent  up  from 
various  parts  of  the  country  for  the  gratification  of  the 
Throne.  These  gifts  are  very  comprehensive,  and  em- 
brace the  fruits  of  the  land  as  well  as  the  products  of 
the  sea.  Little  escapes  the  schedule  of  donations,  and 
no  intervention  can  bring  about  the  discontinuation  of 
the  custom,  while  a  failure  on  the  part  of  a  prefect  to 
attend  to  this  matter  would  result  speedily  enough  in 
the  loss  of  his  office. 

91 


KOREA 

The  Budget  for  the  year  1901  was  assessed  at  nine 
million  yen  odd,  of  which  one  million  yen  odd  was  dedi- 
cated to  Imperial  expenditure,  and  a  trifle  more  than 
this  sum  paid  to  the  Imperial  Privy  Purse.  The  esti- 
mated difference  between  the  revenue  and  the  expendi- 
ture of  the  same  year  was  the  small  sum  of  775  dollars. 
The  Budget  for  1902  provided  for  seven  and  a  half 
million  yen;  the  estimated  revenue  was  placed  approxi- 
mately at  the  same  figures,  the  balance  between  expendi- 
ture and  revenue  being  653  yen.  It  will  be  seen,  there- 
fore, that  there  is  little  reason  for  the  financial  difficul- 
ties in  which  the  Throne  is  placed.  If  it  were  not  that 
his  Majesty  frittered  away  his  income  upon  the  pur- 
chase of  land,  the  adornment  of  his  Palaces  and  his  per- 
son, his  relatives,  his  women,  and  the  perpetual  enter- 
tainment of  his  Court,  this  chronic  impoverishment  of 
his  exchequer  would  not  exist.  Moreover,  at  least  one 
quarter  of  his  revenue  is  appropriated  by  the  native  offi- 
cials through  whose  hands  it  passes.  Under  these  cir- 
cumstances he  has  never  been  averse  from  accepting  the 
assistance  of  interested  parties;  but  this  ill-omened  relief 
does  not  free  the  country  from  its  burden  of  mortgage 
and  taxation. 

The  disbursements  upon  the  different  departments 
engage  the  revenue  to  a  degree  which  is  out  of  all  rela- 
tion to  the  precise  utility  or  importance  of  any  of  these 
fantastic  bureaux.  The  War  Office  claimed  in  1901,  in 
round  figures,  more  than  three  and  one  half  million  yen, 
and  the  Foreign  Office  a  quarter  of  a  million  yen,  the 

92 


BUDGETS 

Finance  Department  three-quarters  of  a  million  yen,  the 
Palace  a  little  more  than  one  million  yen,  and  the  Home 
Department  a  little  less  than  that  amount.  One  million 
yen  is  roughly  £100,000.  The  amount  paid  to  the  War 
Office  for  1902  was.  In  round  figures,  very  nearly  three 
million  yen;  to  the  Foreign  Office,  something  In  excess 
of  a  quarter  of  a  million  yen;  to  the  Finance  Depart- 
ment, rather  more  than  half  a  million  yen.  The  De- 
partments of  Law,  Agriculture,  Police,  Education,  and 
Communications  In  this  highly  expensive  and  totally  In- 
efficient administration,  all  make  good  their  claims  upon 
the  Budget,  until  there  Is  nothing  left  and  very  little  to 
show  for  this  lavish  distribution  of  the  public  moneys. 
The  Budget  for  1903  I  give  In  detail: — 

The  total  revenue  is  estimated  at  ;^i 0,766,1 15.  The  total  ex- 
penditure is  estimated  at  ^10,765,491.  This  leaves  a  balance  of 
1^624. 

REVENUE 


Land  Tax ^7,603,020 

House  Tax 460,295 

Miscellaneous 210,000 

Balance    from     1902 

(including    surplus 

from  loan) 1,142,800 


Customs  Duties  ....  ^850,000 
Various  Imposts  ....  1 50,000 
Mint 350,000 

^10,766,115 


EXPENDITURE 

The  Emperor's  private  purse ;^8i 7,361 

Sacrifices 186,639 

;^  1, 004,000 

93 


KOREA 


The  Imperial  Household 

Railway  Bureau....  ^21,980 

Palace  Police i  18,645 

Police  in  Open  Ports  69,917 
North-west  Railway .  22,882 
Ceremonial  Bureau.  .      17,608 

Mining  Bureau 10,000 

^261,022 

The  Old  Man  Bureau.  ^24,026 

Bureau  of  Generals.  .  ^65,853 

The  Cabinet $3^>73^ 

The  Foreign  Department 

Office ^26,024 

Superintendents        of 

Trade 5i>i54 

Foreign     Representa- 
tives    201,020 

$278,198 

The  Finance  Department 

Office $53,910 

Tax  Collectors 141,600 

Mint 280,000 

Payment  on  Debt.  .  .  989,250 

Pensions ^>9S^ 

Transportation 200,000 

$1,666,716 

War  Department 

Office $50,651 

Soldiers 4,072,93 1 


$4,123,582 


The  Home  Department 

Office $34,624 

Mayor's  Office 6,144 

Provincial       Govern- 
ments      91,862 

Prefectural      Govern- 
ments, 2nd  class.  .      52,674 

Quelpart 4,222 

Prefectures 778,3?- 5 

Imperial  Hospital.  .  .  7,632 
Vaccination  Bureau. .  3*354 
Travelling  Expenses.  730 

Prefectural  Sacrifices.  866 

^^980,533 

Educational  Department 

Office $24,822 

Calendar 6,022 

Schools  in  Seoul.  .  .  .      89,969 
**       **  Country..      22,580 

Subsidies   for    Private 

Schools 5*430 

Students  Abroad. ...     i  5,920 

$164,943 

Agricultural  Department 

Office 38,060 

General  Expense  .  .  .       8,240 
$46,300 

Council 

Office $18,580 

Imperial  Body-Guard 

Office $58,099 


94 


DEBASED    CURRENCY 


Law  Department 

Office $31*603 

Supreme  Court 15,686 

Mayoralty  Court ...        8,162 
Prefectura]  Courts. . .        1,251 


^56,702 

Police  Bureau 

Office ^252,857 

Seoul  Prison 32,650 

Policemen 51,462 

Border  Police,  etc..  23,762 
Travelling  Expense, 

etc 600 


;?36i,33i 

Bureau  of  Decorations 

Office $2^>993 

Telegraph  and  Post 

Office $23,640 

General  Expense.  .  .  438,295 

$461,935 


Bureau  of  Surveys 

Office $21,018 

Surveys 50,000 


$71,018 

Incidentals 

Road  and  other  Re- 
pairs   $35>ooo 

Repairs  in  Country..     10,000 
Arrest  of  Robbers. .  . 

Relief  Work 

Burial  of  Destitute  .  . 

Miscellaneous 

Police  at  Mines,  etc. 
Shrinkage 


500 

5,000 

300 

480 

1,840 

3,120 


$56,240 


Emergency  Fund.  .  .$1,01 5,000 
Steps  have  been  taken  from  time  to  time  by  the 
Foreign  Representatives  to  Improve  the  finances  of  the 
country.  Upon  one  occasion  seven  reforms  were  rec- 
ommended, and  the  report  subsequently  presented  to 
his  Majesty.  In  the  course  of  an  Inquiry  It  transpired 
that,  In  addition  to  nickels  which  were  minted  by  the 
Government,  there  were  more  than  twenty-five  sepa- 
rate and  distinct  brands  of  nickels  then  circulating 
In  Korea.  Until  recent  years  the  counterfeiting  of 
Korean  currency  has  not  been  remunerative.    The  old 

95 


KOREA 

time  cash  was  of  such  small  value,  and  the  combined 
cost  of  the  metal  and  work  together  so  nearly  equalled 
the  face  value  of  the  true  token,  that  the  risk  was  not 
commensurate  with  the  profit.  A  single  nickel  of  the 
present  currency,  however,  is  equivalent  to  twenty-five 
of  the  old  coinage,  and  as  the  net  cost  of  their  manu- 
facture is  less  than  a  cent  and  a  half  a-piece,  it  will 
be  seen  that  there  is  some  incentive  to  the  production 
of  false  money.  The  number  of  counterfeit  nickels  is 
rapidly  increasing,  and  permits  to  coin  were  at  one  time 
freely  issued  by  the  Government  to  private  individuals. 
Nickel  is  openly  imported  through  the  Customs ;  spuri- 
ous coins  in  large  quantities  are  brought  by  almost  every 
steamer  from  Japan  and  smuggled  into  the  country. 
The  Government  care  only  for  the  profit  which  they 
derive  from  their  illegitimate  transaction,  and,  ignor- 
ing the  permanent  injury  which  they  are  doing  to  the 
solvency  of  the  country,  adopt  every  means  to  circulate 
these  depreciated  coins.  Until  quite  lately  the  circu- 
lation of  nickel  pieces  was  confined  to  the  capital  and 
the  vicinity  of  two  or  three  Treaty  ports,  the  old  cop- 
per cash  being  current  elsewhere.  With  a  view  to  ex- 
tending their  use,  however,  the  magistrates  throughout 
the  Empire  were  ordered  to  accept  redemption  of  taxes 
only  in  this  currency.  But  as  wages  are  generally  paid 
in  the  nickel  currency,  and  as  the  purchasing  power  of 
the  nickel  Korean  dollar  is  less  than  half  it  was  with 
copper  cash,  while  the  standard  of  payment  remains  the 
same,  the  bulk  of  the  nation  is  paid  no  better  than  for- 

96 


DEBASED    CURRENCY 

merly,  while  the  purchasing  power  of  their  earnings  is 
infinitely  less.  There  appears  no  prospect  of  any  im- 
mediate improvement,  since  the  Government  contracted 
for  the  issue  of  a  further  forty  million  nickels.  With 
this  accomplished,  the  face  value  of  the  coinage  in  cir- 
culation, as  against  the  Japanese  gold  yen,  will  be  four- 
teen million  yen,  or  nearly  one  million  and  a  half 
pounds  sterling.  There  is,  of  course,  no  gold  or  silver 
reserve  with  which  to  redeem  this  gigantic  sum. 

To  such  a  pitch  has  this  condition  of  affairs  attained 
that  in  Chemulpo  quotations  are  current  for: — 

( 1 )  Government  nickels ; 

(2)  First-class  counterfeits; 

(3)  Medium  counterfeits;  and 

(4)  Those  passable  only  after  dark. 

There  is  little  wonder,  therefore,  that  the  currency 
question  is  engaging  the  earnest  attention  of  the  foreign 
representatives.  Awakening  at  last  to  some  sense  of 
its  responsibilities  in  this  matter,  the  Japanese  Govern- 
ment Issued,  on  November  7th,  1902,  an  Imperial  ordi- 
nance, which  came  into  force  on  the  15  th,  with  a  view 
to  deterring  Japanese  from  making  spurious  coins  or 
despatching  such  nickels  of  Japanese  manufacture  to 
Korea.  The  punishment  to  which  offenders  against  the 
ordinance  are  liable  Is  Imprisonment  for  a  period  not 
exceeding  one  year  or  a  fine  of  not  more  than  200  yen 
(£20  Ss.  4.d.) .  This  enactment  gave  the  Japanese 
customs  officers  power  to  prevent  the  counterfeit  coins 
from  being  shipped  abroad,  and  enabled  the  Korean 

97 


KOREA 

customs  authorities  to  institute  proceedings  against 
Japanese  found  guilty  of  Importing  nickels  of  this 
description.  From  January  22nd,  1902,  when  the  first 
seizure  of  the  year  took  place,  until  the  close  of  De- 
cember, 3,573,138  pieces  (coins  and  blanks),  the  total 
face  value  being  £18,191,  were  confiscated  by  the 
Chemulpo  customs  officers.  The  largest  quantity  taken 
at  one  time  was  739,000  pieces,  face  value  £3772,  de- 
tected on  August  19th  aboard  a  Korean  junk,  the  second 
largest  haul  was  made  on  September  8th  in  a  cargo- 
boat,  and  consisted  of  530,090  pieces,  with  a  face  value 
of  £2512. 

With  a  view  to  provide  a  remedy  against  the  deplo- 
rable condition  of  the  Korean  currency,  a  Japanese 
Bank,  Dai  IchI  Ginko  (No.  I.  Bank),  which  Is  under 
direction  of  Baron  Shibusawa,  decided,  with  the  sup- 
port of  the  Japanese  Government,  to  undertake  the 
issue  of  notes  by  which  a  promise  was  made  to  pay  the 
bearer  on  demand  in  Japanese  currency  at  any  of  its 
branches  In  Korea.  The  Dal  IchI  Ginko  possesses 
branches  at  all  the  larger  Treaty  ports,  as  well  as  in 
Seoul,  and  is,  perhaps,  the  most  important  commercial 
agent  In  the  country.  The  Japanese  Consular  officers 
are  authorised  to  supervise  the  issue  and  to  receive  state- 
ments of  the  circulation  and  reserves  twice  a  month. 
They  are  also  entrusted  with  certain  discretionary 
powers  as  to  limiting  the  number  of  notes  In  use.  The 
denomination  of  the  notes  are  i  yen  (2s.  oy^d.)^  5  yen 
(105.  2>^^.),  10  yen  (£1  05.  5J.),  and  on  May  loth, 

98 


THE    DAI    ICHI    GINKO 

1902,  there  appeared  the  first  Issue  of  notes  of  i  yen 
value.  Those  of  5  yen  were  put  In  circulation  on  Sep- 
tember 20th  following.  The  10  yen  notes  were  not 
Issued  until  a  later  time. 

On  February  28th,  1903,  the  circulation  of  Dal  IchI 
GInko  notes  and  the  reserves  held  for  their  redemption 
stood  as  follows: 

Amount. 
Branch.  In  circulation.  Reserves. 

Chemulpo 18,927  18,927 

Fusan 24,568  19,701 

Seoul 1,894  1,894 

Mok-po 14,406  1 2,250 

Total 59'795  52>772 

This  action  upon  the  part  of  the  Dai  IchI  GInko  gave 
rise  to  vehement  opposition  from  the  Korean  Govern- 
ment. Although  the  Issue  of  the  notes  was  duly  au- 
thorised by  the  Emperor,  the  Minister  of  Foreign 
Affairs  persistently  obstructed  the  circulation  of  the 
notes.  Upon  September  nth,  1902,  an  order  was 
Issued  from  the  Foreign  Office,  upon  the  authority 
of  the  Acting  Ministers  of  Foreign  Affairs,  pro- 
hibiting the  use  of  the  notes  by  Koreans  upon 
grounds  which  Impugned  the  credit  of  the  entire  pro- 
ceeding. This  order  was  Inspired,  of  course,  by  YI 
Yong-Ik,  and  when  a  few  months  later,  on  January  8th, 

1903,  Cho  Pyong-slk — then  Foreign  Minister — re- 
moved the  prohibition,  YI  Yong-ik  at  once  contrived 
the  dismissal  of  his  too  complaisant  colleague.  The 
Foreign  Office  was  now  without  Its  Chancellor,  and  YI 

99 


KOREA 

Yong-ik  immediately  set  himself  to  revoke  the  charter 
of  the  bank.  After  declaring  that  the  Japanese  paper- 
money  would  be  the  ruin  of  the  country  and  alleging 
that  the  compensation  claims  against  the  Seoul-Fusan 
Railway  Company  were  purposely  paid  In  those  notes 
with  a  view  to  an  ultimate  declaration  of  bankruptcy 
upon  behalf  of  the  bank,  YI  Yong-ik  summoned  on 
January  24th  a  meeting  of  the  Pedlar's  Guild,  at  which 
he  forbade  their  acceptance  of  this  paper-money.  A 
few  days  later,  February  ist,  the  Mayor  of  Seoul  posted 
an  edict  throughout  the  city  giving  effect  to  this  prohi- 
bition and,  at  the  same  time,  threatening  with  most 
severe  penalties  any  one  who  used  the  notes  or  in  any 
way  assisted  to  circulate  them.  The  Finance  Depart- 
ment then  circulated  the  edict  throughout  the  provinces, 
whereupon  an  Immediate  run  upon  the  bank  ensued. 
Three  days  later,  upon  February  4th,  the  Acting 
Japanese  Minister  threatened  the  Government  with  the 
demand  of  an  indemnity  and  a  number  of  mining  and 
railway  concessions  in  compensation  for  the  injury  oc- 
casioned the  bank,  unless  the  obnoxious  measure  was 
withdrawn.  After  considerable  discussion  and  various 
meetings,  the  Korean  authorities  agreed  to  withdraw 
all  obstruction  and  to  publish  throughout  the  Empire 
their  recognition  of  the  existence  of  the  bank.  From 
that  day  the  validity  of  the  position  of  the  Dai  Ichi 
GInko  has  been  unquestioned. 

The  exactions  and  dishonesty  of  the  officials  impose 
a  perpetual  drain  upon  the  national  exchequer.     In  the 

100 


DISHONEST    OFFICIALS 

removal  of  this  one  great  evil,  another  serious  obstacle 
to  a  more  flourishing  financial  condition  would  be  sur- 
mounted. Unfortunately,  the  drought  and  famine  of 
1 90 1,  added  to  the  decrease  in  the  revenues  of  1902, 
created  a  discrepancy  of  five  million  yen.  If  this  def- 
icit may  be  considered  extraordinary,  no  extenuating 
circumstances  can  excuse  the  supplementary  losses  of 
revenue  attributable  to  the  personal  peculations  of  the 
officials.  The  stringency  of  the  financial  situation 
created  by  the  famine  drew  attention  to  the  very  large 
deficits,  with  which  many  of  the  more  important  metro- 
politan and  chief  provincial  officials  were  debited.  The 
inability  of  any  of  these  gentry  to  disgorge  their  ill- 
gotten  gains  resulted  in  their  immediate  prosecution  at 
the  instigation  of  the  Finance  Minister,  Yi  Yong-ik. 
Ministers  of  State,  governors  of  provinces,  prefects  and 
inspectors  were  brought  sharply  to  account  by  the  exe- 
cution, banishment,  or  imprisonment  of  many  offenders. 
In  such  a  moment  the  peculiar  astuteness  of  Yi  Yong- 
ik  becomes  conspicuous.  While  he  visited  any  official 
who  was  compromised  with  the  full  penalties  of  the 
law,  he  himself  executed,  in  his  capacity  of  Minister 
of  Finance,  a  bluff  by  which  he  netted  almost  half  a 
million  yen  for  the  Imperial  Treasury  at  one  stroke. 
Yi  Yong-ik  arranged  to  buy  the  ginseng  crop  from  the 
ginseng  farmers.  This  is  a  Government  monopoly,  and 
the  price  was  arranged  at  eight  dollars  a  pound  for 
sixty-three  thousand  pounds'  weight,  dried  and  undried. 
When  the  time  came  to  pay,  and  he  had  secured  pos- 

lOI 


KOREA 

session  of  the  ginseng,  YI  Yong-Ik  refused  to  give  more 
than  one  dollar  a  pound,  alleging  that  the  ginseng 
growers  had  misrepresented  the  condition  and  weight 
of  the  consignment.  In  the  meantime  the  ginseng  was 
sold;  the  money  was  appropriated,  and  the  balance  in 
the  Treasury  correspondingly  Increased. 

Upon  another  occasion,  at  a  time  when  the  discount 
of  nickel  against  yen  gold  was  very  low,  Yi  Yong-Ik 
was  Instrumental  In  promoting  the  presentation  of  a 
gift  of  two  million  dollars  Korean  to  the  Emperor. 
By  careful  adjustment  the  value  of  the  exchange,  nickel 
currency  as  against  yen  gold,  hardened  twenty  points 
the  day  after  the  presentation.  It  Is,  perhaps,  unneces- 
sary to  point  out  that  YI  Yong-Ik  occupied  the  Interval 
In  disposing  of  the  difference  to  the  advantage  of  his 
master. 


102 


CHAPTER    IX 

Education— Arts    and    graces— Penal    code— Marriage    and 

divorce The  rights  of  concubines — Position  of  children 

— Government 

UNTIL  the  Introduction  of  foreign  methods  of 
education,  and  the  establishment  of  schools 
upon  modern  lines,  no  very  promising  manifestation 
of  Intellect  distinguished  the  Koreans.  Even  now,  a 
vague  knowledge  of  the  Chinese  classics,  which.  In  rare 
instances  only  can  be  considered  a  familiar  acquain- 
tanceship, sums  up  the  acquirements  of  the  cultured 
classes.  The  upper  classes  of  both  sexes  make  some 
pretence  of  understanding  the  literature  and  language 
of  China ;  but  It  Is  very  seldom  that  the  middle  classes 
are  able  to  read  more  than  the  mixed  Chinese-Korean 
script  of  the  native  Press — In  which  the  grammatical 
construction  Is  purely  Korean. 

Despite  the  prevailing  Ignorance  of  Chinese,  the 
Mandarin  dialect  of  China  Is  considered  the  language 
of  polite  society.  It  Is  the  medium  of  official  communi- 
cation at  the  Court:  the  majority  of  the  foreigners  in 
the  service  of  the  Government  have  also  mastered  its 
intricacies.    It  has  been  estimated  by  Professor  Homer 

103 


KOREA 

B.  Hulbert,  whose  elaborate  researches  in  Korean  and 
Chinese  philology  make  him  a  distinguished  authority, 
that  only  one  per  cent,  of  the  women  of  the  upper  class, 
who  study  Chinese,  have  any  practical  knowledge  of 
It.  Women  of  the  middle  and  lower  classes  are  ig- 
norant of  Chinese.  Again,  the  proportion  of  upper 
class  women  who  can  read  the  Chinese  classics  Is  very 
small.  It  Is  probable  that,  out  of  an  unselected  assem- 
bly of  Koreans,  not  more  than  five  per  cent,  would  be 
found  who  could  take  up  a  Chinese  work  and  read  it 
as  glibly  as  a  similar  gathering  of  English  might  be 
expected  to  read  ordinary  Latin  prose. 

In  relation  to  the  dn-mun,  the  common  script  of 
Korea,  there  Is,  however,  no  such  ignorance;  the  upper 
and  middle  classes  study  their  native  writing  with  much 
Intelligence.  The  language  of  Korea  is  altogether  dif- 
ferent from  that  of  China  and  Japan;  it  possesses  an 
alphabet  of  its  own,  which  at  present  consists  of  some 
twenty-five  letters.  It  has  been  ascribed  by  certain 
Korean  annals  to  the  fifteenth  century,  A.D.  1447,  when 
the  King  of  Korea,  resolving  to  assert  his  Independence 
by  abandoning  the  use  of  Chinese  writing  as  the  official 
medium  of  correspondence.  Invented  an  alphabet  to  suit 
the  special  requirements  of  the  vernacular.  Conserva- 
tism proved  too  strong,  however,  and  the  new  script 
was  gradually  relegated  to  the  use  of  the  lower  classes, 
and  of  women  and  children.  There  Is  an  extensive 
literature  in  the  vernacular.  It  Includes  translations 
from  the  Chinese  and  Japanese  classics ;  historical  works 

104 


EDUCATION 

on  modern  and  mediaeval  Korea,  books  of  travel  and 
hunting,  of  poetry  and  correspondence,  and  a  range  of 
fiction,  dealing  with  those  phases  of  human  nature  that 
are  common  to  mankind. 

Many  of  these  books  are  regularly  studied  by  Korean 
women.  Ignorance  of  their  contents  being  regarded  with 
disdain  by  the  women  of  the  upper  classes,  and.  In  a 
less  pronounced  degree,  by  those  of  the  middle  classes. 
The  female  attendants  In  the  Palace  are  the  readiest 
students  and  scholars  of  the  vernacular,  their  positions 
at  Court  requiring  them  to  prepare  on-mun  copies  of 
Government  orders,  current  news,  and  general  gossip, 
for  Imperial  use.  Books  In  native  script  are  readily 
purchased  by  all  conditions  of  Koreans,  and  taken  out 
from  circulating  libraries.  Many  of  the  works  are 
written  In  Chinese  and  In  Korean  upon  alternate  pages 
for  those  who  can  read  only  one  or  the  other;  those 
who  are  quite  Illiterate  learning  the  more  Important 
chapters  by  ear.  A  work,  with  which  every  woman  Is 
supposed  to  be  Intimate,  Is  entitled  The  Three  Prin- 
ciples of  Conduct,  the  great  divisions  being  ( i )  The 
Treatment  of  Parents;  (2)  The  Rearing  of  a  Family; 
(3)  Housekeeping.  Companion  books  with  this 
volume,  and  of  equal  Importance  to  Korean  women, 
are  the  Five  Rules  of  Conduct  and  the  Five  Volumes  of 
Primary  Literature,  which.  In  spirit  and  contents,  are 
almost  identical.  They  deal  with  the  relations  between 
(i)  Parent  and  Child;  (2)  King  and  Subject;  (3) 
Husband  and  Wife;  (4)  Old  and  Young;  (5)  Friend 

105 


KOREA 

and  Friend.     They  contain  also  exhortations  to  virtue 
and  learning. 

Apart  from  the  direction  and  scope  of  female  edu- 
cation In  Korea,  which  I  have  now  suggested,  the 
theoretical  study  of  the  domestic  arts  Is  an  Invariable 
accompaniment  of  the  more  Intricate  studies.  It  Is  sup- 
plemented with  much  actual  experiment.  As  a  conse- 
quence, while  the  education  of  men  of  certain  rank  is 
confined  to  the  books  to  which  they  are  but  Indifferently 
attentive,  a  wide  range  of  study  exists  for  women  apart 
from  the  writings  and  teachings  of  the  accepted  pro- 
fessors and  classical  authorities.  Ornamental  ele- 
gances, the  tricks  and  traits  of  our  drawing-room 
minxes,  are  ignored  by  the  gentler  classes,  vocal  music 
and  dancing  being  the  accomplishments  of  dancing-girls 
and  demi-mondaines.  The  arts  of  embroidery,  dress- 
making, sewing,  and  weaving  absorb  their  attention  un- 
til they  have  gone  through  the  gamut  of  domestic  econ- 
omy. Occasionally  women  of  the  upper  class  learn 
to  play  the  kumungo,  an  instrument  some  five  feet  long 
and  one  foot  wide,  bearing  a  faint  resemblance  to  a 
zither  and  emitting  a  melancholy  and  discordant  wail. 
There  is  one  other  stringed  weapon,  the  nageum,  but 
the  awful  screech  of  this  unhappy  viol  overwhelms  me, 
even  in  recollection.  The  usual  and  most  simple  amuse- 
ment for  the  middle  classes  Is  the  gentle,  aimless  stroll, 
for  the  purpose  of  "  look  see."  Swinging,  rope-games, 
dice,  dominoes,  and  dolls  find  some  favour  as  dis- 
tractions. 

1 06 


PENAL   CODE 

If  some  little  Improvement  has  become  noticeable  in 
educational  matters  under  the  enlightening  Influence  of 
the  missionaries,  great  fault  must  be  found  with  the 
condition  of  the  law.  It  Is,  of  course,  not  always  pos- 
sible to  graft  upon  the  legal  procedure  of  one  country 
a  system  of  administration  which  works  well  in  another. 
Specific  outbursts  of  violence,  arising  from  identical 
causes,  assume  different  complexions  when  considered 
from  the  point  of  view  of  those  who  are  proceeding  to 
Institute  reforms.  It  may  be  submitted,  further,  that 
a  certain  element  of  barbarism  In  punishment  is  rendered 
necessary  by  the  conditions  of  some  countries.  Impos- 
ing a  restraint  upon  a  population  which  would  scoff  at 
punishment  of  a  more  civilised  description.  If  exception 
may  be  taken  to  the  penal  code  of  Korea,  It  must  be 
remembered  that  in  the  Far  East  the  quality  of  justice  is 
not  tempered  with  mercy.  Many  punishments  are  still 
openly  and  frankly  barbarous,  while  others  are  distin- 
guished by  their  exceptional  severity.  Death  by  de- 
capitation, mutilation,  strangulation,  or  poison  is  now 
less  frequent  than  formerly. 

Until  within  quite  recent  years  it  was  the  custom  of 
Korean  law  to  make  the  family  of  the  arch-criminal 
suffer  all  his  penalties  with  him.  They  are  now  ex- 
empted, and  with  the  reforms  introduced  during  the 
movement  in  1895,  some  attempt  was  made  to  abolish 
practices  opposed  to  the  spirit  of  progress.  The  table, 
which  I  append,  shows  the  punishments  dispensed  for 
certain  crimes. 

107 


KOREA 


Treason,  Man 


Decapitated,  together  with  male  relatives  to  the 
fifth  degree.  Mother,  wife,  and  daughter 
poisoned  or  reduced  to  slavery. 

Poisoned. 

Decapitated.      Wife  poisoned. 

Strangled  or  poisoned. 

Strangled  or  poisoned.      Wife  poisoned. 

Poisoned. 

Strangled,  decapitated,  or  banished.      Wife  re- 
duced to  slavery,  confiscation  of  all  property. 
Desecration  or  graves     Decapitated,  together  with  male  relatives  to  the 
fifth  degree.      Mother,   wife,   and  daughter 
poisoned. 
Counterfeiting Strangulation  or  decapitation.      Wife  poisoned. 


Treason,  Woman 
Murder,  Man .  . 
Murder,  Woman 
Arson,  Man  .  ,  . 
Arson,  Woman. 
Theft,  Man 


Under  the  Korean  law,  no  wife  can  obtain  a  legal 
dissolution  of  her  marriage.  The  privilege  of  divorce 
rests  with  the  man;  among  the  upper  classes  it  is  un- 
common. The  wife,  however,  may  leave  her  husband 
and  accept  the  protection  of  some  relative,  when,  un- 
less the  husband  can  disprove  her  charges,  he  has  no 
redress.  Should  the  wife  fail  to  establish  her  case 
against  her  husband,  the  cost  of  the  marriage  ceremony, 
a  large  sum  usually,  is  refunded  by  her  relatives.  The 
law  does  not  force  a  wife  to  cohabit  with  her  husband; 
nor,  so  far  as  it  affects  the  woman,  does  it  take  any 
cognisance  of  the  matter.  A  man  may  divorce  his  wife, 
retaining  the  custody  of  the  children  in  every  case, 
upon  statutory  grounds,  and  upon  the  following  addi- 
tional counts:  indolence,  neglect  of  the  prescribed  sac- 
rifices, theft,  and  shrewishness.  There  Is  no  appeal 
against  the  charges  of  the  husband  for  women  of  the 

io8 


MARRIAGE   AND    DIVORCE 

upper  classes,  domestic  disturbances  being  considered 
entirely  reprehensible.  Much  greater  latitude  prevails 
among  the  lower  orders,  irregular  unions  of  a  most  be- 
nign elasticity  being  preferred.  Concubinage  is  a  recog- 
nised institution,  and  one  in  which  the  lower,  as  well 
as  the  higher,  classes  indulge. 

The  rights  of  the  children  of  concubines  vary  ac- 
cording to  the  moral  laxity  of  the  class  in  which  they 
are  born.  Among  the  upper  classes  they  possess  no 
claim  against  the  estate  of  their  progenitors;  entail  ig- 
nores them,  and  they  may  not  observe  the  family  sac- 
rifices. In  the  absence  of  legitimate  issue,  a  son  must 
be  adopted  for  the  purpose  of  inheriting  the  properties 
of  the  family  and  of  attending  to  the  ancestral  and 
funeral  rites.  Great  stress  is  laid  by  the  upper  classes 
upon  purity  of  descent;  among  the  middle  and  lower 
orders  there  is  more  indulgence.  Save  in  the  lowest 
classes,  it  is  usual  to  maintain  a  separate  establishment 
for  each  concubine.  The  fact  that  among  the  lower 
classes  concubine  and  wife  share  the  same  house  is  re- 
sponsible for  much  of  the  unhappiness  of  Korean  family 
life.  In  every  case  the  position  of  the  children  of  con- 
cubines corresponds  with  the  status  of  the  mother. 

Within  recent  years,  considerable  changes  have  taken 
place  in  the  Government  and  in  the  administration  of 
the  law.  Under  the  old  system  the  despotic  thesis  of 
divine  right  was  associated  with  many  abuses.  Justice 
was  not  tempered  by  mercy,  and,  in  the  suppression  of 
crime,  it  was  not  always  the  guilty  who  suffered.    The 

109 


KOREA 

old  system  of  government  was  modelled  upon  the  prin- 
ciples of  the  Ming  rule  In  China.  The  power  of  the 
sovereign  was  absolute  In  theory  and  In  practice.  He 
was  assisted  by  the  three  principal  officers  of  State  and 
six  administrative  boards,  to  whom,  so  soon  as  the 
country  was  brought  Into  contact  with  foreign  nations, 
additional  bureaux  were  added.  Modifications  In  the 
spirit,  or  In  the  letter  of  the  law  have  taken  place  from 
time  to  time  at  the  Instance  of  reformers.  Before  the 
ascendency  of  the  Japanese  came  about,  the  principles 
and  character  of  Korean  law  presented  no  very  marked 
deviation  from  that  which  had  been  upheld  In  China 
through  so  many  centuries.  For  a  long  time  the  In- 
tense conservatism  of  China  reigned  In  Korea.  The  au- 
thority of  the  sovereign  Is  more  restricted  to-day;  but 
in  the  hands  of  a  less  enlightened  monarch  It  would  be 
just  as  effective  as  ever  against  the  Interests  of  the  coun- 
try. Happily,  however,  the  era  of  progressive  reform, 
which  Illustrated  the  Inauguration  of  the  Empire,  con- 
tinues. 

The  Government  Is  now  vested  in  a  Council  of 
State,  composed  of  a  Chancellor,  six  Ministers,  five 
Councillors,  and  a  Chief  Secretary.  The  will  of  the 
sovereign  Is,  however,  supreme.  The  Departments  of 
State  are  conducted  by  nine  ministers,  chief  of  whom 
is  the  Prime  Minister,  assisted  In  his  Cabinet  by  the 
President  of  the  Privy  Council,  the  Ministers  of  the 
Household,  of  Foreign  Affairs,  Home  Affairs,  Finance, 
War,   Law,   Education,    and  Agriculture.      With   im- 

IIO 


GOVERNMENT 

proved  internal  administration  many  of  the  abuses  which 
existed  under  the  old  system  have  disappeared.  There 
are  still  many  grievances,  and  the  working  of  the  new 
machine  of  State  cannot  be  said  to  give  unalloyed  satis- 
faction. Justice  is  still  hedged  about  with  bribery;  of- 
ficial corruptness  admits  of  the  venal  purchase  of  office. 
Much  outcry  accompanies  the  sweeping  of  the  Augean 
stables ;  and,  at  present,  the  advantages  of  the  improve- 
ments hardly  justify  the  ecstatic  jubilation  by  which 
their  Introduction  was  greeted.  It  is  early  yet  to 
prophesy;  but,  if  the  honourable  administration  of  the 
public  departments  can  be  obtained,  there  is  no  reason 
why  success  should  not  attend  the  Innovation.  The 
responsibility  for  the  working  of  the  administrative 
machine,  however,  rests,  In  the  Interval,  entirely  upon 
the  shoulders  of  the  foreign  advisers.  It  remains  to 
be  seen,  therefore,  if  the  united  services  of  these  dis- 
tinguished people  can  prolong  in  any  degree  the  era 
of  honest  government  In  Korea. 


Ill 


CHAPTER    X 

Farmers — Farming  and  farm  animals — Domestic  industries — 
Products — Quality  and  character  of  food-stufFs 

THE  Koreans  are  an  agricultural  people,  and  most 
of  the  national  Industries  are  connected  with 
agriculture.  More  than  seventy  per  cent,  of  the  popu- 
lation are  farmers;  the  carpenter,  the  blacksmith,  and 
the  stonemason  spring  directly  from  this  class,  com- 
bining a  knowledge  of  the  forge  or  workshop  with  a 
life-long  experience  of  husbandry.  The  schoolmaster 
Is  usually  the  son  of  a  yeoman-farmer;  the  fisherman 
owns  a  small  holding  which  his  wife  tills  while  he  Is 
fishing.  The  farming  classes  participate  In  certain  in- 
dustries of  the  country;  the  wives  of  the  farmers  raise 
the  cotton,  silk,  linen,  and  grass-cloth  of  the  nation,  and 
they  also  convert  the  raw  material  Into  the  finished 
fabrics.  The  sandals,  mats,  osier  and  wooden  wares 
which  figure  so  prominently  In  Korean  households,  are 
the  work  of  the  farming  classes  In  their  leisure  mo- 
ments. The  officials,  the  yamen  runners,  the  merchants, 
Inn-keepers,  miners,  and  junk-men  are  not  of  this  order, 
but  they  are  often  closely  connected  with  It.  The  Gov- 
ernment exists  on  the  revenue  raised  from  agriculture; 
the  people   live  upon  the   fruits  of  the  soil;   Korean 

112 


FARMERS 

officials  govern  whole  communities  given  over  to  agri- 
cultural labour.  The  internal  economy  of  the  country 
has  been  affiliated  for  centuries  to  the  pursuits  and  prob- 
lems of  agriculture.  Koreans  are  thus  instinctively  and 
intuitively  agriculturists,  and  It  Is  necessarily  along 
these  lines  that  the  development  of  the  country  should 
In  part  progress. 

It  Is  Impossible  not  to  be  impressed  by  a  force  which 
works  so  laboriously,  while  It  takes  no  rest  save  that 
variety  which  comes  with  the  change  of  season.  The 
peaceable,  plodding  farmer  of  Korea  has  his  counter- 
part in  his  bull.  The  Korean  peasant  and  his  weary 
bull  are  made  for  one  another.  Without  his  ruminat- 
ing partner,  the  work  would  be  impracticable.  It  drags 
the  heavy  plough  through  the  deep  mud  of  the  rice- 
fields,  and  over  the  rough  surface  of  the  grain  lands; 
It  carries  loads  of  brick  and  wood  to  the  market,  and 
hauls  the  unwieldy  market  cart  along  the  country  roads. 
The  two  make  a  magnificent  pair;  each  is  a  beast  of 
burden.  The  brutishness,  lack  of  intelligence,  and 
boorishness  of  the  agricultural  labourer  in  England  is 
not  quite  reproduced  in  the  Korean.  The  Korean 
farmer  has  of  necessity  to  force  himself  to  be  patient. 
He  is  content  to  regard  his  sphere  of  utility  in  this 
world  as  one  in  which  man  must  labour  after  the  fashion 
of  his  animals,  with  no  appreciable  satisfaction  to  him- 
self. 

Originally,  If  history  speaks  truly,  the  farmers  of 
Korea  were  inclined  to  be  masterful  and  Independent. 

113 


KOREA 

Indications  of  this  earlier  spirit  are  found  nowadays  In 
periodical  protests  against  the  extortionate  demands  of 
local  officials.  These  disturbances  are  Isolated  and  in- 
frequent, for,  when  once  their  spirits  were  crushed,  the 
farmers  developed  into  the  present  mild  and  inoffen- 
sive type.  They  submit  to  oppression  and  to  the  cruelty 
of  the  Yamen;  they  endure  every  form  of  illegal  tax- 
ation, and  they  ruin  themselves  to  pay  "  squeezes,'^ 
which  exist  only  through  their  own  humility.  They 
dread  the  assumption  of  rank  and  the  semblance  of 
authority.  Their  fear  of  a  disturbance  is  so  great  that, 
although  they  may  murmur  against  the  impositions  of 
the  magistrate,  they  continue  to  meet  his  demands. 

At  the  present  day  the  farmer  of  Korea  is  the  ideal 
child  of  nature;  superstitious,  simple,  patient  and  ig- 
norant. He  Is  the  slave  of  his  work,  and  he  moves  no 
further  from  his  village  than  the  nearest  market.  He 
has  a  terrified  belief  In  the  existence  of  demons,  spirits 
and  dragons,  whose  dirty  and  grotesque  counterfeits 
adorn  his  thatched  hut.  There  are  other  characteristic 
traits  in  this  great  section  of  the  national  life.  Their 
capacity  for  work  is  unlimited;  they  are  seldom  Idle, 
and,  unlike  the  mass  of  their  countrymen,  they  have  no 
sense  of  repose.  As  farmers,  they  have  by  Instinct  and 
tradition  certain  Ideas  and  principles  which  are  excel- 
lent In  themselves.  To  the  wayfarer  and  stranger  the 
individual  farmer  is  supremely  and  surprisingly  hos- 
pitable. A  foreigner  discussing  the  peculiarities  of 
their  scenery,  their  lands,   and  the  general  details  of 

114 


FARMING   AND    FARM    ANIMALS 

their  life  with  them,  is  struck  by  their  profound  rever- 
ence for  everything  beyond  their  own  understanding, 
and  their  amazing  sense  of  the  beautiful  in  nature.  The 
simplicity  of  their  appreciation  is  delightful.  It  is  easy 
to  believe  that  they  are  more  susceptible  to  the  charms 
of  flowers  and  scenery  than  to  that  of  woman. 

At  rare  intervals  the  farmer  indulges  in  a  diversion. 
Succumbing  to  the  seductions  of  market  day,  after  the 
fashion  of  every  other  farmer  the  world  has  ever 
known,  he  returns  to  the  homestead  a  physical  and 
moral  wreck,  the  drunk  and  disorderly  residuum  of 
many  months  of  dreary  abstinence  and  respectability. 
At  these  times  he  develops  a  phase  of  unexpected  as- 
sertiveness,  and  forcibly  abducts  some  neighbouring 
beauty,  or  beats  in  the  head  of  a  friend  by  way  of  en- 
forcing his  argument.  From  every  possible  point  of 
view  he  reveals  qualities  which  proclaim  him  the  sim- 
ple, if  not  ideal,  child  of  nature. 

During  the  many  months  of  my  stay  In  Korea  I  spent 
some  days  at  a  wayside  farmhouse,  the  sole  accommoda- 
tion which  could  be  obtained  in  a  mountain  village. 
The  slight  Insight  into  the  mode  of  life  of  the  farming 
peasant  which  was  thus  gained  was  replete  with  inter- 
est, charm  and  novelty.  Knowing  something  of  the 
vicissitudes  of  farm  life,  I  found  the  daily  work  of  this 
small  community  supremely  instructive.  Upon  many 
occasions  I  watched  the  farmer's  family  and  his  neigh- 
bours at  their  work.  The  implements  of  these  people 
are  rude  and  few,  consisting  of  a  plough,  with  a  mov- 

115 


KOREA 

able  Iron  shoe  which  turns  the  sods  in  the  reverse  di- 
rection to  our  own;  a  spade,  furnished  with  ropes  and 
dragged  by  several  men;  bamboo  flails  and  rakes,  and 
a  small  hoe,  sharp  and  heavy,  used  as  occasion  may 
require  for  reaping,  chopping  and  hoeing,  for  the  rough 
work  of  the  farm,  or  the  lighter  service  of  the  house. 

During  the  harvest  all  available  hands  muster  in  the 
fields.  The  women  cut  the  crop,  the  men  fasten  the 
sheaves,  which  the  children  load  into  rope  panniers,  sus- 
pended upon  wooden  frames  from  the  backs  of  bulls. 
The  harvest  is  threshed  without  delay,  the  men  empty- 
ing the  laden  baskets  upon  the  open  road,  and  setting 
to  with  solemn  and  uninterrupted  vigour.  While  the 
men  threshed  with  their  flails,  and  the  wind  winnowed 
the  grain,  six,  and  sometimes  eight,  women  worked, 
with  their  feet,  a  massive  beam,  from  which  an  iron 
or  granite  pestle  hung  over  a  deep  granite  mortar. 
This  rough  and  ready  contrivance  pulverises  the  grain 
sufficiently  for  the  coarse  cakes  which  serve  in  lieu  of 
bread. 

Beyond  the  bull  and  the  pig,  there  are  few  farm  ani- 
mals in  the  inland  districts.  The  pony  and  the  donkey 
are  not  employed  in  agricultural  work  to  the  same  ex- 
tent as  the  bull.  This  latter  animal  Is  cared  for  more 
humanely  than  the  unfortunate  pony,  whose  good  na- 
ture Is  ruined  by  the  execrable  harshness  with  which  he 
is  treated.  The  gross  cruelty  of  the  Korean  to  his  pony 
is  the  most  loathsome  feature  of  the  national  life. 

Irrigation  is  necessary  only  for  the  rice,  which  yields 

ii6 


DOMESTIC   INDUSTRY 

fairly  abundant  crops  throughout  Central  and  Southern 
Korea.  To  the  north,  rice  makes  way  for  millet,  the 
great  supplementary  food  of  Korea.  Elsewhere  paddy- 
fields  abound,  and  the  people  have  become  adepts  in  the 
principles  of  irrigation  and  the  art  of  conserving  water. 
Rice  is  sown  in  May,  transplanted  from  the  nurseries 
to  the  paddy-fields  in  June,  and  gathered  in  October. 
In  times  of  drought,  when  it  is  necessary  to  tide  over 
the  period  of  distress,  the  fields  are  used  for  barley,  oats 
and  rye  which,  ripening  in  May  and  cut  in  June,  allow 
a  supplementary  crop  to  be  taken  from  the  fields.  The 
fields  are  then  prepared  for  the  rice.  The  land  is  in- 
undated; the  peasant  and  his  bull,  knee-deep  in  water, 
plough  the  patches.  Beans,  peas,  and  potatoes  are 
planted  between  the  furrows  of  the  cornfields,  the  land 
being  made  to  produce  to  its  full  capacity.  The  crops 
are  usually  excellent. 

The  fields  differ  from  the  farms  in  China,  where  the 
farmers,  preferring  short  furrows,  grow  their  crops  in 
small  sections.  The  long  furrows  of  the  Korean  fields 
recall  Western  methods,  but  here  the  analogy  ends. 
The  spectacle  of  these  well-ordered  acres  is  a  revela- 
tion of  the  earnest  way  in  which  these  down-trodden 
people  combat  adversity.  In  many  ways,  however,  they 
need  assistance  and  advice.  If  it  were  prudent  to  ac- 
complish it,  I  would  convert  the  mission  centres  of  the 
inland  districts  into  experimental  farm-stations,  and  at- 
tach a  competent  demonstrator  to  each  establishment. 

The  Koreans  hold  rice,  their  chief  cereal.  In  peculiar 

117 


KOREA 

honour.  They  state  that  It  originated  in  Ha-ram,  in 
China,  at  a  period  now  involved  in  much  fable  and 
mystery — 2838  B.C.  to  2698  B.C.  The  name,  Syang- 
nong-si,  itself  means  Marvellous  Agriculture.  The 
name  was  doubtless  given  at  a  later  time.  The  first  rice 
was  brought  to  Korea  by  Ki-ja  in  1122  B.C.  together 
with  barley  and  other  cereals.  Before  that  time  the  only 
grain  raised  in  Korea  was  millet.  There  are  three  kinds 
of  rice  in  Korea,  with  a  variety  of  sub-species.  First, 
that  which  is  grown  in  the  ordinary  paddy-fields.  This 
is  called  specifically  tap-kok,  or  paddy-field  rice.  It  is 
used  almost  exclusively  to  make  pap,  the  ordinary  boiled 
rice.  Then  we  have  chun-kok  or  field-rice.  This  is  so- 
called  upland  rice.  It  is  drier  than  the  paddy-field  rice, 
and  is  used  largely  in  making  rice  flour  and  in  brewing 
beer.  The  third  kind  is  grown  exclusively  on  the  slopes 
of  mountains,  and  is  a  wild  rice.  It  Is  smaller  and 
harder  than  the  other  kinds;  for  this  reason  it  Is  used 
to  provision  garrisons.  It  will  withstand  the  weather. 
Under  favourable  circumstances,  lowland  rice  will  keep 
five  years,  but  the  mountain  rice  will  remain  perfectly 
sound  for  quite  ten  years. 

Next  In  Importance  to  rice  come  the  different  kinds 
of  pulse,  under  which  heading  is  included  all  the 
leguminous  plants,  the  bean  and  the  pea  family.  That 
Korea  Is  well  provided  with  this  valuable  and  nutri- 
tious form  of  food  will  be  seen  from  the  fact  that  there 
are  thirteen  species  of  round  beans,  two  kinds  of  long 
bean,  and  five  varieties  of  mixed  bean.     Of  all  these 

118 


CHARACTER    OF    FOOD-STUFFS 

numerous  assortments,  the  "  horse-bean  "  is  by  far  the 
most  common.  It  Is  the  bean  which  forms  such  a  large 
part  of  the  exports  of  Korea.  It  Is  supposed  by  Ko- 
reans to  have  originated  In  North- Western  China,  and 
derives  Its  name  from  the  fact  that  It  is  used  very 
largely  for  fodder.  One  variety  only  may  be  regarded 
as  Indigenous — the  black-bean — and  it  is  found  no- 
where else  In  Eastern  Asia.  Of  the  rest,  the  origin  is 
doubtful.  The  horse-bean  grows  in  greatest  abun- 
dance in  Kyong-syang  Province  and  on  the  Island  of 
Quelpart,  though  of  course  it  is  common  all  over  the 
country.  The  black-bean  flourishes  best  in  Chyol-la 
Province.  The  green-bean,  oil-bean,  and  white-cap 
bean  flourish  In  Kyong-keul  Province.  The  yellow  bean 
is  found  in  Hwang-hai  Province ;  the  South  River  bean 
appears  in  Chyung-chyong  Province;  the  grandfather- 
bean  (so  called  because  of  Its  wrinkles)  grows  any- 
where, but  not  in  large  quantities.  The  brown-bean 
and  chestnut-bean  come  from  Kang-won  Province. 

It  would  be  difficult  to  over-estimate  the  importance 
of  these  different  species  of  pulse  to  the  Korean.  They 
furnish  the  oily  and  nitrogenous  elements  which  are 
lacking  in  rice.  As  a  diet  they  are  strengthening,  the 
nutritious  properties  of  the  soil  imparting  a  tone  to  the 
system.  Preparations  of  beans  are  as  numerous  as  the 
dishes  made  from  flour;  it  is  impossible  to  enumerate 
them.  Upon  an  average,  the  Koreans  eat  about  one- 
sixth  as  much  pulse  as  rice.  The  price  of  beans  is  one- 
half  that  of  rice;  the  price  of  either  article  is  liable  to 

119 


KOREA 

variations.  There  are  varieties  which  cost  nearly  as 
much  as  rice. 

The  common  name  for  barley  is  po-ri;  in  poetical 
parlance  the  Koreans  call  barley  The  Fifth  Moon  of 
Autumn,  because  it  is  then  that  it  is  harvested.  The 
value  of  barley  to  the  Korean  arises  from  the  fact  that 
it  is  the  first  grain  to  germinate  in  the  spring.  It  car- 
ries the  people  on  until  the  millet  and  rice  crops  are 
ready.  Barley  and  wheat  are  extensively  raised 
throughout  Korea  for  the  purpose  of  making  wine  and 
beer.  In  other  ways,  however,  they  may  be  considered 
almost  as  important  as  the  different  kinds  of  pulse.  The 
uses  of  barley  are  very  numerous.  Besides  being  used 
directly  as  farinaceous  food  it  becomes  malt,  medicine, 
candy,  syrup,  and  furnishes  a  number  of  side-dishes. 
Wheat  comes  mostly  from  Pyong-an  Province,  only 
small  crops  of  it  appearing  in  the  other  Provinces. 
Barley  yields  spring  and  autumn  crops,  but  wheat  yields 
only  the  winter  crop.  The  poor  accept  wheat  as  a  sub- 
stitute for  rice,  and  brew  a  gruel  from  it.  It  is  used  as 
a  paste;  it  figures  in  the  native  pharmacopoeia,  and  in 
the  sacrifices  with  which  the  summer  solstice  is  cele- 
brated. 

Oats,  millet,  and  sorghum  are  other  important  cereals 
in  Korea.  There  are  six  varieties  of  millet;  the  price 
of  the  finer  qualities  is  the  same  as  that  obtained  for 
rice.  One  only  of  these  six  varieties  was  found  origi- 
nally in  the  country.  Sorghum  is  grown  principally  in 
Kyong-syang  Province.     It  grows  freely,  however,  in 

I20 


CHARACTER   OF    FOOD-STUFFS 

the  south;  but  Is  less  used  than  wheat,  millet,  or  oats 
In  Korea.  A  curious  distinction  exists  between  the  sor- 
ghum Imported  from  China  and  the  native  grain.  In 
China,  sorghum  Is  used  In  making  sugar;  when  this 
sugar-producing  grain  arrives  In  Korea  It  Is  found  im- 
possible to  extract  the  sugar.  Two  of  the  three  kinds 
of  sorghum  In  Korea  are  native,  the  third  coming  from 
Central  China.  Oats  become  a  staple  food  In  the  more 
mountainous  regions,  where  rice  Is  never  seen;  It  Is 
dressed  like  rice.  From  the  stalk  the  Koreans  make 
a  famous  paper,  which  Is  used  In  the  Palaces  of  the 
Emperor.  It  Is  cultivated  In  Kang-won,  Ham-kyong, 
and  Pyong-an  Provinces. 

The  Korean  Is  omnivorous.  Birds  of  the  air,  beasts 
of  the  field,  and  fish  from  the  sea,  nothing  comes  amiss 
to  his  palate.  Dog-meat  Is  In  great  request  at  certain 
seasons;  pork  and  beef  with  the  blood  undralned  from 
the  carcase,  fowls  and  game — birds  cooked  with  the 
lights,  giblets,  head  and  claws  Intact,  fish,  sun-dried  and 
highly  malodorous,  all  are  acceptable  to  him.  Cook- 
ing Is  not  always  necessary;  a  species  of  small  fish  Is  pre- 
ferred raw,  dipped  into  some  piquant  sauce.  Other 
dainties  are  dried  sea-weed,  shrimps,  vermicelli,  made 
by  the  women  from  buckwheat  flour  and  white  of  egg, 
pine  seeds,  lily  bulbs,  honey-water,  wheat,  barley,  mil- 
let, rice,  maize,  wild  potatoes,  and  all  vegetables  of 
Western  and  Eastern  gardens ;  even  now  the  list  is  by  no 
means  exhausted. 

Their  excesses  make  them  martyrs  to  indigestion. 

121 


CHAPTER   XI 

Japan   in   Korea — Historical  associations — In   Old   Fusan — 
Political  and  economic  interests — Abuse  of  paramountcy 

SOUTHERN  KOREA  bears  many  evidences  of  the 
warlike  activities  and  commercial  enterprise  of 
the  past  generations  of  Japanese,  who,  abandoning  their 
own  island  home,  sought  domicile  upon  the  shores  of 
the  neighbouring  peninsula.  The  precarious  existence 
of  these  waifs  and  strays  from  an  alien  state,  in  the 
midst  of  a  people  whose  whole  attitude  was  anti-foreign, 
did  not  deter  others  from  coming  to  her  ports.  This 
gradual  migration  from  Japan  to  the  Hermit  Kingdom 
continued  during  many  centuries,  promoting  an  inter- 
course between  two  races  which  the  Government  was 
powerless  to  frustrate.  Japanese  historians  argue  from 
this  settlement  in  Korea  that  the  State  was  a  vassal  of 
Japan  from  the  second  century  by  right  of  conquest  and 
appropriation.  The  Idea,  which  prevailed  through  sev- 
enteen centuries,  was  not  finally  rejected  until  the  Am- 
bassador of  the  Mikado  signed  a  treaty  at  Seoul  on 
February  7th,  1897,  which  recognised  Korea  as  an  in- 
dependent nation.  From  about  the  beginning  of  the 
Christian  era  until  the  fifteenth  century,  the  relations 
between  Japan  and  Korea  were  very  close.     From  this 

122 


JAPAN    IN    KOREA 

period  onward  Korea,  although  maintaining  her  atti- 
tude of  complacent  Indifference  to  events  outside  her 
own  Empire,  betrayed  signs  of  weakness  in  her  policy 
of  Isolation  when  menaced  with  the  importunate  de- 
mands of  her  rival  neighbours,  China  and  Japan. 

At  the  two  points  In  her  Empire  adjacent  to  the  do- 
minions of  China  and  Japan,  war  and  peace  alternately 
prevailed.  If,  upon  occasion,  the  Koreans  went  out  un- 
supported to  fight  their  invaders,  the  leaders  more  usu- 
ally united  with  one  of  the  two  rivals  against  the  other. 
Thus,  there  was  always  turmoil  throughout  the  king- 
dom. In  the  south,  as  In  the  north,  the  tide  of  war 
rolled  backwards  and  forwards,  with  varying  success. 
From  the  west,  the  armies  of  China  appeared  and  van- 
ished, skirting  the  Liao-tung  Gulf,  to  plunder  and  de- 
vastate the  peninsula.  Fleets  from  Shan-tung,  crossing 
the  Yellow  Sea,  dropped  their  anchors  in  the  rivers  of 
the  land.  The  west  was  threatened  by  the  hordes  of 
China,  and  the  south  was  harried  by  ships  and  men 
from  the  east,  who  pounced  upon  Fusan  and  seized  the 
cities  of  the  south.  The  aggressions  of  the  Japanese 
extinguished  any  hope  the  Koreans  might  still  have  cher- 
ished of  preserving  the  southern  frontier  of  their  king- 
dom intact.  Although  cordons  of  armed  sentinels  and 
palisades,  barriers  of  mountains  and  miles  of  ruined  and 
deserted  wastes  protected  the  northern  borders  against 
the  incursions  of  the  Chinese  soldiers  to  some  extent, 
the  south  was  vulnerable. 

Fusan  was  the  floodgate  through  which  poured  the 

123 


KOREA 

hostile  masses  of  Japan,  an  unbroken  stream  of  men,  to 
deluge  the  land.  They  Invaded  Korea  as  enemies,  levy- 
ing tribute ;  they  came  as  allies  against  China ;  they  ap- 
peared as  the  embassies  of  a  friendly  State  and  returned 
enriched  to  the  Court  of  their  Sovereign.  Actuated  by 
feelings  of  mercy,  they  sent  grain-ships  to  Fusan  when 
famine  overtook  their  neighbours.  Between  Japan  and 
Fusan  there  was  the  continuous  passing  of  ships. 
Around  this  outlet,  the  one  gate  to  the  southern  half  of 
the  kingdom,  the  spasmodic  beginnings  of  the  present 
Important  commerce  between  the  two  countries  grew 
out  of  a  fretful  exchange  of  commodities. 

In  the  years  that  followed  the  earlier  visitations, 
Japan  became  so  embarrassed  by  her  own  internal  trou- 
bles, that  the  Kingdom  of  Korea  was  left  In  that  peace 
and  seclusion  which,  always  preferring,  it  had  found  so 
much  difficulty  in  securing.  This  happy  state  of  things 
prevailed  for  two  centuries.  At  the  end  of  this  inter- 
val, the  annual  embassy  to  Japan  from  the  Court  of 
Korea  had  ceased.  The  kingdom  in  general,  lulled  by 
visions  of  perpetual  peace,  no  longer  maintained  de- 
fences. Military  preparations  were  neglected;  the  army 
was  disorganised;  the  old  fighting  spirit  of  the  people 
died  down,  and  martial  exercises  disappeared  from  the 
training  of  the  militia.  Dissipation  and  profligacy  were 
rife.  In  the  meantime,  order  having  been  restored  in 
Japan,  the  thoughts  of  her  soldiers  again  turned  towards 
fields  of  conquest  and  deeds  of  daring.  The  vassalship 
of  Korea  was  recalled;  the   King  was  summoned  to 

124 


JAPAN    IN    KOREA 

renew  his  allegiance.  The  answer  proving  unsatisfac- 
tory, preparations  for  an  invasion  were  at  once  begun. 
The  fleet  assembled  and  the  ships  set  sail.  The  mobil- 
ity which  was  to  distinguish  the  Japanese  in  after  years 
characterised  their  movements  in  this  campaign.  With- 
in eighteen  days  after  their  landing  at  Fusan,  the  cap- 
ture of  the  capital  was  accomplished  and  a  blow  was 
struck,  which  enabled  the  Koreans  at  last  to  understand 
the  gravity  of  their  plight. 

The  part,  which  Fusan  played  in  this  war,  materially 
assisted  the  Invading  hosts  of  Japan.  A  settlement  at 
Fusan,  which  had  been  founded  long  since  by  the  re- 
tainers of  the  Daimlo  of  the  Island  of  Tsu-shlma,  as- 
sisted by  itinerant  traders  and  deserters  from  the  numer- 
ous expeditions  which  visited  Its  shores,  had  grown  to 
such  dimensions  that  when  the  force  was  descried  off 
the  harbour  upon  the  morning  of  May  25th,  1592, 
Fusan  was  already  in  their  possession.  This  circum- 
stance gave  the  troops  Immediate  facilities  for  disem- 
barkation, and,  in  the  subsequent  vicissitudes  of  the  next 
six  years'  campaign,  expedited  the  progress  of  the  war. 
The  position  of  Fusan  speedily  made  the  place  a  base 
of  supplies  to  the  army  of  operation  and  a  repairing 
yard  for  the  Japanese  fleet  after  their  disastrous  engage- 
ment with  the  Korean  ships,  in  an  attempt  to  co-operate 
with  the  victorious  forces,  which  KonlshI  and  Kuroda 
had  assembled  before  Pyong-yang.  After  the  conclu- 
sion of  the  first  Invasion  and  the  Japanese  retreat  from 
the  north,  before  the  combined  strength  of  the  Chinese 

125 


KOREA 

and  Koreans  on  May  22nd,  1593,  Fusan  became  one  of 
the  fortified  camps  upon  the  coast,  where  the  Japanese 
armies  passed  the  winter  in  sight  of  the  shores  of  their 
own  land.  The  negotiations,  which  were  opened  in  the 
following  year,  and  shifted  alternately  between  the 
camp  of  the  Commander-in-Chief  at  Fusan  and  the 
Courts  in  China  and  Japan,  failed. 

Even  at  this  date  Japan  was  anxious  to  establish  her 
power  in  Korea  by  obtaining  possession  of  the  southern 
provinces.  Foiled  in  this  attempt,  she  renewed  her  at- 
tack. Fusan  again  became  the  seat  of  the  councils  of 
war,  and  the  base  for  the  second  invasion.  The  opera- 
tions began  with  the  siege  of  the  Castle  of  Nan-on,  in 
Chyol-la  Province,  upon  the  morning  of  September  21st, 
1597.  Twelve  months  later,  the  Japanese  were  with- 
drawn from  Korea,  and  the  war  came  to  its  close.  Two 
hundred  years  passed  before  Korea  recovered  from  the 
desolation  of  this  conflict,  which  was  one  in  which  the 
loss  of  three  hundred  thousand  men  was  recorded. 
Moreover,  the  Japanese  retained  Fusan,  a  perpetual  evi- 
dence of  their  victory. 

This  early  claim  to  the  southern  provinces  put  for- 
ward by  the  Japanese  plainly  reveals  how  long  standing 
is  their  wish  to  annex  the  southern  half  of  Korea. 
Even  in  modern  times,  they  have  embarked  upon  one 
campaign  in  the  interests  of  Korea,  while  they  are  now 
ready  to  go  to  war  with  Russia  on  behalf  of  the  same 
nation  that  they  themselves  consistently  bully.  Their 
plea  of  Korea  for  the  Koreans,  however,  is  in  curious 

126 


JAPAN    IN    KOREA 

contrast  to  their  own  lawless  domination  of  the  coveted 
territory.  Indeed,  the  interests  which  the  Japanese  have 
developed  for  themselves  throughout  these  regions  do 
not  disclose  much  consideration  for  the  rights  of  the 
natives.  The  treaty  of  1876,  which  opened  Fusan  to 
Japanese  settlers,  removed  the  nominal  obstacles  to  that 
over-sea  immigration  which  had  been  progressing  stead- 
ily during  several  centuries.  A  wave  of  Japanese  colo- 
nisation at  once  lapped  the  eastern,  western,  and  south- 
ern shores  of  the  Hermit  Kingdom. 

Indications  of  previous  incursions  were  given  by  the 
affinity  which  existed  between  the  language,  manners, 
and  local  customs  of  these  newcomers  and  the  indige- 
nous race.  The  existence  of  this  affinity  became  a  power- 
ful, if  Impersonal,  Instrument  in  abating  the  opposition 
of  the  population  to  the  settlement.  Unable  to  obtain 
the  secession  of  the  territory  which  they  so  much  desired, 
communities  of  Japanese  fringed  Its  borders.  They 
planted  themselves  wherever  there  were  prospects  of 
trade,  until  the  resources  of  the  land  were  tapped  in  all 
directions,  and  the  control  of  Its  commerce  was  virtually 
In  their  hands.  As  other  ports  were  opened  at  the  per- 
sistent Instigation  of  these  persevering  traders,  however, 
the  settlement  of  the  south  proceeded  less  rapidly.  In 
view  of  the  changing  relations  between  Korea  and  the 
Powers,  therefore,  the  Japanese  passed  further  afield, 
developing  some  little  Industry  to  their  own  advantage 
wherever  they  went.  Trade  followed  their  flag,  whether 
they  were  within  the  radius  of  the  treaty  ports,  or  en- 

127 


KOREA 

gaged  in  forcing  the  hand  of  the  local  officials  by  set- 
tling beyond  the  limitations  of  their  Conventions.  The 
success  of  these  efforts  was  soon  assured.  Despite  the 
stipulations  of  the  treaties,  and  in  face  of  the  objections 
of  their  own,  as  well  as  the  Korean,  Government,  the 
irrepressible  activity  of  these  pioneers  of  a  past  genera- 
tion unconsciously  contributed  to  that  supremacy  which 
the  trade  of  Japan  has  since  achieved  in  the  land  of  her 
former  enemy. 

The  expansion  of  Japanese  interests  in  Korea  has  not 
been  without  political  design.  The  integrity  of  her 
neighbour  Is  bound  up  with  her  own  existence.  The 
security  of  Korea  emphasises  the  safety  of  her  own  bor- 
ders ;  and,  as  her  own  Empire  has  developed  Into  a  first- 
class  Power,  this  desire  to  see  the  kingdom  respected  has 
become  more  and  more  the  spirit  of  the  policy  upon 
which  she  has  concentrated  her  Individual  action.  She 
has  fostered  the  trade  with  Korea  because  it  drew  to- 
gether the  ties  which  connected  the  two  countries.  She 
has  urged  the  concession  of  ports,  and  still  more  ports, 
to  foreign  commerce,  because  the  preponderance  of  her 
trade  in  these  open  marts  substantiates  her  claim  to  be 
the  lawful  champion  of  the  race.  The  progress  of  Ko- 
rea, since  the  country  came  under  her  supervision,  has 
been  more  evident  than  any  of  the  difficulties  which 
have  originated  out  of  the  disposition  of  the  Japanese  to 
bully  and  coerce  the  Koreans.  If,  upon  occasion,  the 
results  have  suggested  that  the  blind  cannot  lead  the 
bhnd  without  disaster,  the  rarity  of  mistakes  reflects 

128 


JAPAN    IN    KOREA 

credit  upon  the  judgment  which  has  been  displayed. 
This  combination  is,  of  course,  directed  against  foreign- 
ers. Just  as  Japan  is  discarding  those  Western  teachers, 
whose  genius  and  administrative  abilities  protected  her 
In  her  days  of  ignorance,  so  does  she  hanker  after  the 
time  when  she  alone  may  guard  the  interests  of  Korea, 
and  supply  the  demands  of  her  markets.  At  present, 
however,  it  Is  open  to  question  whether  the  Koreans  will 
have  overcome  their  feelings  of  Irritation  against  the 
Japanese  by  the  time  that  these  have  become  thoroughly 
progressive  in  their  treatment  of  the  Koreans.  The 
Japanese  are  more  repressive  in  their  methods  than  they 
need  be. 

The  extraneous  evidence  of  the  power  of  the  Japanese 
irritates  the  Koreans,  Increasing  the  unconquerable  aver- 
sion which  has  Inspired  them  against  the  Japanese 
through  centuries,  until,  of  the  various  races  of  foreign- 
ers in  Korea  at  the  present,  none  are  so  deservedly  de- 
tested as  those  hailing  from  the  Island  Empire  of  the 
Mikado.  Nor  Is  this  prejudice  remarkable,  when  It  Is 
considered  that  It  Is  the  scum  of  the  Japanese  nation  that 
has  settled  down  upon  Korea.  It  Is,  perhaps,  surprising 
that  the  animus  of  the  Koreans  against  the  Japanese 
has  not  died  out  with  time;  but  the  fault  lies  entirely 
with  the  Japanese  themselves.  Within  recent  years  so 
much  has  occurred  to  alter  the  position  of  Japan  and  to 
flatter  the  vanity  of  these  island  people  that  they  have 
lost  their  sense  of  perspective.  Puffed  up  with  conceit, 
they  now  permit  themselves  to  commit  social  and  admln- 

129 


KOREA 

Istratlve  excesses  of  the  most  detestable  character. 
Their  extravagant  arrogance  blinds  them  to  the  absurd- 
ities and  follies  of  their  actions,  making  manifest  the 
fact  that  their  gloss  of  civilisation  is  the  merest  veneer. 
Their  conduct  in  Korea  shows  them  to  be  destitute  of 
moral  and  intellectual  fibre.  They  are  debauched  In 
business,  and  the  prevalence  of  dishonourable  practices 
in  public  life  makes  them  indifferent  to  private  virtue. 
Their  interpretation  of  the  laws  of  their  settlements,  as 
of  their  own  country,  Is  corrupt.  Might  Is  right;  the 
sense  of  power  is  tempered  neither  by  reason,  justice  nor 
generosity.  Their  existence  from  day  to  day,  their  hab- 
its and  their  manners,  their  commercial  and  social  degra- 
dation, complete  an  abominable  travesty  of  the  civilisa- 
tion which  they  profess  to  have  studied.  It  Is  intoler- 
able that  a  Government  aspiring  to  the  dignity  of  a 
first-class  Power  should  allow  Its  settlements  in  a 
friendly  and  foreign  country  to  be  a  blot  upon  Its  own 
prestige,  and  a  disgrace  to  the  land  that  harbours  them. 
There  are  some  twenty-five  thousand  Japanese  In 
Korea,  and  the  Japanese  settlement  is  the  curse  of  every 
treaty  port  in  Korea.  It  Is  at  once  the  centre  of  business, 
and  the  scene  of  uproar,  riot,  and  confusion.  In  the 
comparative  nakedness  of  the  women.  In  the  noise  and 
violence  of  the  shopkeepers,  in  the  litter  of  the  streets, 
there  Is  nothing  to  suggest  the  delicate  culture  of  Japan. 
The  modesty,  cleanliness,  and  politeness,  so  character- 
istic of  the  Japanese,  are  conspicuously  absent  In  their 
settlements  in  this  country.     Transformation  has  taken 

130 


ABUSE    OF    PARAMOUNTCY 

place  with  transmigration.  The  merchant  has  become 
a  rowdy;  the  coolie  Is  impudent,  violent,  and,  in  gen- 
eral, an  outcast  more  prone  to  steal  than  to  work.  Mas- 
ter and  man  alike  terrorise  the  Koreans,  who  go  In  fear 
of  their  lives  whenever  they  have  transactions  with  the 
Japanese.  Before  the  Chlno-Japanese  war  this  spirit 
had  not  displayed  Itself  to  any  great  extent  In  the  capi- 
tal of  the  Hermit  Kingdom.  With  the  successful  con- 
clusion of  that  campaign,  however,  the  Japanese  be- 
came so  aggressive  In  their  treatment  of  the  people  that, 
had  the  choice  of  two  evils  been  possible  In  view  of 
these  events,  the  Koreans  would  have  preferred  the  Chi- 
nese and  a  state  of  dependence  to  the  conditions  which 
were  then  Introduced.  The  universal  admiration 
aroused  by  the  conduct  of  the  Japanese  troops  In  the 
North-China  campaign  of  1 900-1 901  has  added  sensi- 
bly to  the  vanity  and  egoism  of  these  Korean-Japanese. 
Convinced  of  their  Innate  superiority,  their  violence 
towards  the  Koreans  goes  on  unchecked.  It  threatens 
now  to  assume  unparalleled  dimensions.  If  the  relations 
between  the  Powers  are  to  continue  upon  a  satisfactory 
footing  In  Korea,  It  will  be  necessary  for  the  Japanese 
Government  to  redress  those  abuses  which  foreigners, 
Japanese,  and  Koreans  alike  have  combined  to  de- 
nounce. 


131 


CHAPTER   XII 

The   commercial  prospects  of  Korea — Openings  to  trade — 
Requirements  of  markets — Lack  of  British  enterprise 

THE  trade  returns  for  1900  exceeded  every  previ- 
ous year.  During  the  period  covered  by  the 
Boxer  disturbances,  however,  the  Korean  exports  to 
China  decreased,  and  the  importation  of  foreign  goods 
likewise  fell  off.  The  stimulus  given  to  the  cereal  trade, 
by  the  interruption  of  the  Manchurlan  export  bean  trade 
from  Newchang,  and  by  the  demand  for  food-supplies 
for  the  troops  In  China,  more  than  counterbalanced  this 
temporary  decline  in  direct  native  exports  and  direct 
foreign  imports.  Cotton  goods,  however,  show  an  In- 
crease of  £14,297  over  the  figures  of  previous  years; 
but  there  is  a  specific  falling  off  In  Imports  of  British 
manufacture  and  origin,  and  a  specific  advance  in  the 
more  Important  lines  of  Japanese  goods.  I  append  a 
small  table  revealing  the  comparative  prosperity  of  Brit- 
ish and  Japanese  trade  at  this  date : 


English,  decrease  in : 

Shirtings £S9y^^9 

Indian  Varn £3»^S^ 

Sheetings     and     other 

pieces Small  decrease 


Japanese,  increase  in : 

Shirtings £^*73^ 

^arn ;^i  1,329 

Sheetings ^40,422 

Other  piece  goods.  .  .    ;^ 2 5, 67 6 


132 


COMMERCIAL   PROSPECTS   OF    KOREA 

In  time,  the  markets  of  Japan  will  produce  every- 
thing which  at  present  comes  from  America  in  the  shape 
of  canned  goods,  and  from  Europe,  in  the  form  of 
textiles  or  food-stuffs.  Japanese  woven  fabrics,  and 
canned  foods  of  inferior  quality  are  driving  the  whole- 
sale manufacturing  houses  of  England  and  America 
from  the  markets.  At  present,  therefore,  the  trade  of 
Korea  is  limited  as  much  by  the  capacity  of  the  Japanese 
markets  as  by  the  wants  of  the  Korean.  In  face  of  the 
opposition  of  the  Japanese,  their  determination  to  retain 
the  Korean  markets  for  themselves,  and  the  absence  of 
effective  attempts  by  Western  houses  to  beat  up  such 
trade  as  may  exist,  it  is  difficult  to  believe  that  the  future 
will  show  any  material  expansion  in  the  capacity  of  the 
foreign  trade. 

Nevertheless,  Korea  provides  a  fair  field  for  capital. 
It  would  be  possible  to  improve  the  condition  of  foreign 
trade,  if  merchants  could  arrange  to  protect  their  inter- 
ests by  establishing  their  own  agencies  In  the  country, 
under  competent  and  energetic  European  management. 
When  British  merchants  depart  from  their  apathetic  in- 
difference and  organise  an  exhaustive  expert  Inquiry  Into 
the  capabilities  of  the  Korean  trade,  their  trouble  will  be 
quickly  rewarded.  New  markets  require  new  commodi- 
ties, the  demand  for  which  any  technical  Inspection  of 
the  requirements  of  the  people  will  disclose.  Until  this 
examination  takes  place,  however,  the  stagnation  in 
British  trade  must  continue.  Korea  offers  to  British  In- 
terests an  Interesting  field  In  which  the  development  of 

133 


KOREA 

new  Industries  must  be  conducted  upon  practical  lines. 
Briefly,  the  Imports  In  demand  are  those  which  are 
necessary  to  meet  the  requirements  of  an  agricultural 
country  whose  mining  resources  are  In  process  of  devel- 
opment and  whose  railway  system  Is  as  yet  In  Its  early 
stages.  The  Increase  In  the  Importation  of  mining  sup- 
plies supports  this  contention.  Bags  and  ropes  for  pack- 
ing, machinery  for  agricultural  and  mining  purposes, 
and  sewing  machines  are  In  greater  demand.  Railway 
material  Is,  of  course,  wanted.  The  new  Industries  may 
not  be  upon  a  large  scale.  Primitive  methods  doubtless 
will  continue  for  the  most  part  to  govern  native  manu- 
factures, such  as  grass  cloth,  straw  mats,  ropes,  etc.  Ex- 
lent  paper  has  been  made  since  the  replacement  of  the 
use  of  native  lye  by  caustic  soda  and  soda-ash,  while  the 
innovation  is  one  to  which  the  people  have  taken  kindly 
enough.  Again,  while  the  paper  Industry  Is  capable  of 
expansion,  a  brisk  business  In  leather  could  be  built  up  In 
the  country.  Hides,  which  are  exported  to  Japan  In 
their  raw  state,  are  abundant,  and  might  be  converted 
into  leather  so  easily  on  the  spot.  The  straw  braid  In- 
dustry contains  great  possibilities,  while  the  climate  of 
Korea  Is  naturally  suited  to  the  growth  and  treatment 
of  silk. 

Many  things  would  be  necessary  to  the  success  of 
such  enterprises.  The  work  must  be  based  upon  a 
knowledge  of  the  country  and  its  language.  The  manu- 
facturer or  the  merchant  must  take  the  pains  to  accom- 
modate a  direct  Import  trade  to  the  exigencies  of  the 

134 


OPENINGS  TO   TRADE 

local  market.  As  an  example,  smaller  bales  and  shorter 
lengths  are  requisite  in  the  piece  goods.  The  establish- 
ment of  sample  warehouses  at  the  treaty  ports,  and  in 
the  more  important  trade-centres  of  the  interior,  where 
bales  of  shirting,  cotton  and  woollen  goods,  cases  of 
farming  Implements,  etc.,  could  be  opened  and  sold  for 
cash,  would  appeal  to  the  natives.  This  departure 
would  avoid  the  increase  in  the  prime  cost  of  the  articles 
necessitated  by  the  existing  system  of  transhipment.  At 
present,  goods  come  from  Shanghai  to  Chl-fu  and 
thence  to  Chemulpo.  They  pass  then  from  the  Importer 
to  the  Chinese  merchants,  and  from  them  to  the  Korean 
wholesale  buyers;  these  resell  them  In  greatly  dimin- 
ished quantities  to  the  pedlars  and  agents,  who  retail  the 
goods.  It  would  also  be  advisable  to  create  consular 
agencies  In  Fusan  and  Won-san.  Official  representation 
at  present  Is  confined  to  an  underpaid  and  understaffed 
Legation  in  Seoul,  and  a  vice-consulate  In  Chemulpo. 
Additional  employes  should  be  interchangeable,  under- 
taking either  the  vice-consular  duties  of  the  ports  or 
the  secretarial  services  of  the  Legation. 

The  bulk  of  the  Imports  and  exports,  which  pass 
through  the  Customs,  comes  from  China  and  Japan. 
The  means  of  transport  are  controlled  by  Japanese ;  the 
export  trade  of  the  country  Is  entirely  in  their  hands. 
This  fact  alone  should  appeal  to  British  shipping  inter- 
ests and  to  ship-owners.  Unfortunately,  many  years  of 
prosperity  have  brought  about  great  changes  in  the 
spirit  of  our  nation,  and  we  no  longer  show  the  enter- 

135 


KOREA 

prise  and  initiative  which  formerly  distinguished  us. 
This  depreciation  in  the  forces  of  the  nation  has  pro- 
moted a  corresponding  depression  In  our  trade.  We  are 
no  longer  the  pioneers  of  commerce;  nor  have  we  the 
capacity  and  courage  of  our  forefathers  who  fostered 
those  interests  of  which  we  are  now  so  neglectful  in 
every  quarter  of  the  globe.  At  the  dawn  of  the  twen- 
tieth century,  it  is  amazing  to  find  a  country,  with  a  total 
foreign  import  and  export  trade  exceeding  two  millions 
and  a  half  sterling  for  the  year  1901  and  two  millions 
and  three  quarters  sterling  for  the  year  1902,  whose 
shores  were  visited  by  over  ten  thousand  steam  and  sail- 
ing trading-vessels  in  the  same  period,  registering  an 
aggregate  tonnage  of  more  than  two  million  tons, 
almost  untouched  by  British  merchantmen.  Deplorable 
as  this  may  be,  statistics  which  Mr.  McLeavy  Brown 
has  drawn  up  show  that  one  steamship,  chartered  by 
Chinese  and  floating  the  British  flag,  entered  Korean 
waters  In  1900;  that  four  steamers  came  in  each  of  the 
years  190 1-2,  a  return  which  reveals  a  steady  decline 
upon  the  previous  years.  Since  Korea  was  opened  to 
trade  in  1880,  British  shipping  has  visited  the  country 
in  the  proportion  of  1377  tons  to  every  two  years.  De- 
spite appeals  from  our  Consuls  In  Korea  to  British 
steamship  companies  improvement  has  been  impossible; 
since  no  response  was  evoked  by  their  efi^orts,  and  no 
service  has  been  established.  The  consequence  of  this  Is 
that  a  valuable  opportunity  has  been  allowed  to  escape, 
the  Japanese  profiting  by  our  Indifference. 

136 


OPENINGS   TO   TRADE 

The  trade  of  Korea  is  Increasing  gradually.  A 
steamer,  which  could  make  periodical  calls  between 
Shanghai  and  Won-san,  Yokohama  and  Vladlvostock, 
taking  cargo  and  passengers  to  the  open  ports  of  Korea, 
and  touching  at  Japan  upon  the  journey  back,  would 
return  good  money  upon  the  venture.  British  and  Chi- 
nese merchants  would  prefer  to  ship  In  a  British  vessel. 
The  old-fashioned  traditions  of  the  British  mercantile 
service,  as  to  punctuality  and  despatch,  are  not  carried 
out  by  the  steamers  of  the  Nippon  Yusen  Kalsha  and 
the  Osaka  Shosen  Kalsha,  which  call  at  the  ports  In 
Korea.  It  Is  almost  Impossible  to  know  when  the  steam- 
ers of  these  companies  will  arrive  or  when  they  will 
leave.  Little  attempt  Is  made  to  observe  their  schedule. 
The  condition  of  the  vessels  of  the  latter  company  ac- 
credited to  the  Korean  run  Is  filthy.  Moreover,  this 
company  is  careless  of  cargo,  and  quite  Indifferent  to  the 
comforts  of  its  passengers.  The  Nippon  Yusen  Kalsha 
certainly  supplies  meals  in  foreign  style,  but  the  Osaka 
Shosen  Kalsha  provides  nothing.  Plying  between 
Japan,  China  and  Korea,  this  company  declines  to  make 
any  arrangements  for  foreigners  In  the  matter  of  food 
or  accommodation.  One  experience  Is  enough.  Unfor- 
tunately, foreigners  are  compelled  to  travel  In  them,  as 
the  steamers  of  one  or  other  of  the  two  companies  are 
usually  the  sole  means  of  communication  between  those 
countries  and  Korea.  There  Is  cargo  and  passenger 
traffic  for  any  company  that  will  organise  a  regular 
steam-service.    The  profits  might  be  small  at  first,  since 

137 


KOREA 

the  Japanese  prefer  to  endure  their  own  steamers  and 
to  ship  under  their  own  flag;  but  there  are  signs  that  the 
flourishing  condition  of  the  trade  of  the  country  would 
bring  ultimate  success. 

The  establishment  of  a  steamer-service,  if  only  of  one 
or  two  steamers,  is  not  the  sole  hazard  by  which  Japanese 
competition  might  be  faced.  The  climate  of  Korea  is 
peculiarly  suited  to  fruit-culture.  If  this  work  were 
taken  in  hand,  the  fruit  might  be  tinned  or  exported 
fresh  to  China,  where  it  would  find  a  ready  sale.  The 
fertility  of  the  soil  near  Won-san  and  the  abundance 
of  fish  in  the  sea  off  that  part  of  the  coast,  would  make 
that  port  a  suitable  export  centre  for  the  creation  of  a 
fish  and  fruit-canning  industry  under  foreign  manage- 
ment. Fish  and  fruit  industries  of  this  description  in 
Japan  are  profitable  and  very  bad.  Nevertheless,  their 
output  is  widely  distributed  over  the  Far  East.  The 
initiation  of  these  industrial  ventures  would  require  some 
time,  for  many  difficulties  oppress  foreigners,  who  are 
anxious  to  put  capital  into  Korea.  In  the  end,  a  modest 
venture  would  reap  suflicient  success  to  justify  the  specu- 
lation, while  the  returns  would  probably  permit  an  im- 
mediate expansion  of  the  enterprise.  There  is  no  doubt 
about  the  fish;  there  is  no  doubt  about  the  fruit;  but 
whatever  investment  of  an  industrial  character  Is  made 
in  Korea,  close  and  high-class  technical  supervision  Is 
the  necessary  accompaniment. 

The  British  merchant  In  the  Far  East  Is  the  first  to 
condemn  his  own  Minister  and  to  abuse  his  own  Consul, 

138 


LACK   OF    BRITISH    ENTERPRISE 

and  he  is  the  very  last  to  help  himself.  It  may  be,  how- 
ever, that  the  follies  of  the  Imperial  Government,  the 
unreasoning  prejudices  and  foolish  blundering  of  the 
Foreign  Office,  have  created  this  apathy.  The  drifting 
and  vacuous  policy  of  Lord  Salisbury  made  It  Impossi- 
ble to  avert  the  decay  of  our  prestige  and  trade  which 
has  set  In  throughout  the  Far  East.  Official  returns 
establish  only  too  completely  the  unhappy  predicament 
in  which  trade  and  merchants  alike  are  placed.  There 
is  a  general  decrease  in  the  volume  of  the  one,  and  there 
has  been  no  sympathetic  activity  among  those  engaged 
in  commercial  Interests  elsewhere  to  set  against  it.  The 
deficiency  is  almost  without  solution,  so  long  as  bounty- 
fed  manufactures,  carried  in  subsidised  bottoms,  are  set 
against  the  products  of  an  unassisted  trade.  Competi- 
tion Is  Increasing,  and  foreign  manufacturers  are  them- 
selves now  meeting  the  requirements  of  the  markets  of 
China.  There  Is  little  prospect  in  the  future  of  the  res- 
toration of  our  former  commercial  superiority.  Much 
might  be  attempted,  although  It  seems  almost  as  if  the 
British  merchant  were  so  bent  upon  his  own  damnation, 
that  little  could  be  done. 

The  decline  of  British  trade  cannot  be  attributed  in 
any  way  to  the  late  disturbances  in  North  China,  to  the 
decline  in  the  purchasing  power  of  the  dollar,  or  to  the 
temporary  rise  in  the  market  prices.  Japan  has  become 
our  most  formidable  competitor.  The  decrease  in  our 
trade  Is  due  entirely  to  the  commercial  development  and 
rise  of  Japan,  who,  together  with  America,  has  success- 

139 


KOREA 

fully  taken  from  us  markets  in  which,  prior  to  their  ap- 
pearance, British  goods  were  supreme.  The  gravity  of 
the  situation  in  which  British  trade  Is  placed  cannot  be 
lightly  regarded.  We  still  lay  claim  to  the  carrying 
trade  of  the  Far  East;  but  the  figures,  which  support 
our  pre-eminence  in  this  direction  are  totally  unreliable. 
If  the  true  conditions  were  made  manifest,  it  would  be 
seen  that  so  far  from  leading  the  shipping  of  the  world 
in  the  Far  East,  Great  Britain  could  claim  but  a  small 
proportion  of  the  freights  carried.  Although  we  may 
own  the  ships,  neither  our  markets  nor  our  manufactures 
are  associated  with  their  cargoes.  It  would  be  well 
if  the  public  could  grasp  this  feature  of  the  China  trade. 
Members  of  Parliament,  ignorant  of  the  deductions 
which  are  necessary  before  claiming  the  carrying  trade 
of  the  Far  East — much  less  of  the  Yang-tse  and  of  the 
China  coast — as  an  asset  in  our  commercial  prosperity, 
and  a  sign  of  vigour  of  the  first  magnitude,  do  not  rec- 
ognise how  unsubstantial  Is  the  travesty  of  affluence 
which  they  so  constantly  applaud. 

During  1 90 1,  owing  to  the  Boxer  disturbance,  large 
numbers  of  ships  owned  by  natives  were  transferred  to 
the  British  flag.  The  ostensible  decrease  In  the  tonnage 
of  British  vessels,  which  entered  and  cleared  affected 
ports,  was  therefore  less  than  that  of  other  nationalities. 
Similarly,  there  was  a  small  Increase  in  the  duties  paid 
under  the  British  flag  during  the  same  period,  owing  to 
the  valuable  character  of  these  cargoes.  Under  ordi- 
nary circumstances,  the  comparatively  small  decrease  In 

140 


LACK   OF    BRITISH    ENTERPRISE 

the  British  tonnage  and  the  increase  of  more  than  fifty 
thousand  taels  in  the  payments  made  to  the  Imperial 
Customs  at  such  a  moment  of  unrest,  would  suggest  the 
stability  of  our  trading  interest,  and  afford  no  mean 
standard  by  which  to  judge  the  capacity  of  the  markets. 
Unfortunately,  the  two  most  important  counts  in  the 
returns,  tonnage  and  duties,  are  no  criterion.  It  is  neces- 
sary to  inspect  closely  the  individual  values  of  the  differ- 
ent articles  comprising  the  total  trade.  In  this  way  the 
general  depreciation  of  our  manufactures  is  at  once 
apparent. 

A  comparison  of  the  American,  Japanese,  and  Ger- 
man returns  shows  which  are  the  commercial  activities 
that  are  threatening  our  existence  as  a  factor  in  the 
markets  of  the  Far  East.  If,  in  the  returns,  we  were 
shown  the  relations  between  the  duties  paid  under  each 
flag,  and  the  tonnage  of  any  particular  country,  besides 
the  source  and  destination  of  its  cargo,  the  true  condi- 
tion of  British  trade  would  be  revealed  at  a  glance.  As 
it  is,  until  a  table  is  added  to  the  Maritime  Report, 
which  will  supply  this  valuable  and  interesting  demon- 
stration, the  system  of  a  separate  examination  is  alone 
to  be  relied  upon.  By  this  method  we  find  that  between 
the  years  1891  and  1901  there  was  a  consistent  falling- 
off  in  British  exports  to  the  Far  East  in  almost  every 
commodity  in  which  the  competition  of  America,  Japan, 
and  Germany  was  possible.  Since  1895,  when  Japan 
began  to  assert  herself  in  the  markets  of  China,  those 
articles  which,   pre-eminently   among   the   commercial 

141 


KOREA 

Powers,  she  can  herself  supply,  have  carried  everything 
before  them.  Ten  years  ago  the  British  trade  in  cloths, 
drills,  shirtings,  cottons,  yarns,  and  matches  had  at- 
tained magnificent  dimensions.  In  certain  particulars, 
only,  our  trade  was  rivalled  by  the  United  States  of 
America,  whose  propinquity  gave  to  them  some  little 
advantage  in  the  markets  of  the  Far  East.  Now,  how- 
ever, the  trade  has  passed  altogether  into  the  hands  of 
the  Japanese,  or  is  so  equally  divided  between  Japan  and 
America,  Japan  and  Germany,  that  our  pristine  suprem- 
acy has  disappeared. 


142 


CHAPTER    XIII 

British,  American,  Japanese,  French,  German,  and  Belgian 
interests — Railways  and  mining  fictions — Tabled  coun- 
terfeited Imports 

WITH  the  exception  of  Great  Britain,  the  ex- 
ample of  the  Japanese  in  Korea  has  stirred 
the  Western  Powers  to  corresponding  activity.  Every 
strange  face  in  Seoul  creates  a  crop  of  rumours.  Until 
the  new-comer  proves  himself  nothing  more  dangerous 
than  a  correspondent,  there  Is  quite  a  flutter  in  the  Min- 
isterial dove-cots.  Speculation  is  rife  as  to  his  chance 
of  securing  the  particular  concession  after  which,  of 
course,  it  is  well  known  he  has  come  from  Europe,  Asia, 
Africa,  or  America.  The  first  place  among  the  holders 
of  concessions  is  very  evenly  divided  between  Japan 
and  America.  If  the  Interests  of  Japan  be  placed  apart, 
those  of  America  are  certainly  the  most  prominent. 
Germany  and  Russia  are  busily  creating  opportunities 
for  the  development  of  their  relations  with  the  Indus- 
tries of  the  country;  Italy  and  Belgium  have  secured  a 
footing;  Great  Britain  is  alone  in  the  indifference  with 
which  she  regards  the  markets  of  Korea. 

In  this  chapter  I  propose  to  state  briefly  the  exact 
position  occupied  in  Korea  by  the  manufacturing  and 
industrial  interests  of  foreign  countries;  adding  a  spe- 
cific table,  which,  I  hope,  may  attract  the  attention  of 

143 


KOREA 

British  manufacturers  to  the  means  by  which  the  Japan- 
ese houses  contrive  to  meet  the  demands  of  the  Korean 
market.  The  competition  of  the  Japanese  has  an  ad- 
vantage in  the  propinquity  of  their  own  manufacturing 
centres ;  a  co-operative  movement  throughout  the  Japan- 
ese settlements  against  foreign  goods  is  another  factor 
in  their  supremacy. 

It  may,  perhaps,  afford  British  manufacturers  some 
small  consolation  to  know  that  there  are  still  many  arti- 
cles which  defy  the  imitative  faculties  of  the  Japanese. 
These  are,  mainly,  the  products  of  the  Manchester 
market,  which  have  proved  themselves  superior  to  any- 
thing which  can  be  placed  in  competition  against  them. 
It  has  been  found,  for  instance,  impossible  to  imitate 
Manchester  dyed  goods,  nor  can  Japanese  competition 
affect  the  popularity  of  this  particular  line.  Chinese 
grass  cloths  have,  however,  cut  out  Victoria  lawns  fairly 
on  their  merits.  The  Chinese  manufacturer,  unham- 
pered by  any  rise  in  the  cost  of  production  and  transpor- 
tation, produces  a  superior  fabric,  of  more  enduring 
quality,  at  a  lower  price.  Moreover,  in  spite  of  the  as- 
sumed superiority  of  American  over  English  locomo- 
tives, on  the  Japanese  railways  in  Korea  the  rolling 
stock  produced  by  British  manufacturers  has  maintained 
its  position.  It  is  pleasing  to  learn  that  some  propor- 
tion of  the  equipment  of  the  old  line  from  Chemulpo 
to  Seoul,  and  of  the  new  extension  to  Fusan,  have  been 
procured  from  England.  Mr.  Bennett,  the  manager 
of  Messrs,  Holme  Ringer  and  Company,  the  one  Brit- 

144 


BRITISH    INTERESTS 

ish  house  In  Korea,  with  whom  the  order  from  the 
Japanese  company  was  placed,  informed  me  that  the 
steel  rails  and  fish-plates  imported  would  be  from  Cam- 
mel  and  Company,  the  wheels  and  axles  from  Vickers, 
and  that  orders  for  a  number  of  corrugated  iron  goods 
sheds  had  been  placed  in  Wolverhampton.  The  loco- 
motives were  coming  from  Sheffield.  The  Japanese 
company  expressly  stipulated  that  the  materials  should 
be  of  British  make;  it  was  only  through  the  extreme 
dilatorlness  of  certain  British  firms  in  forwarding  cata- 
logues and  estimates,  that  an  order,  covering  a  large 
consignment  of  iron  wire,  nails,  and  galvanised  steel 
telegraph  wire,  was  placed  In  America.  This  dilatorl- 
ness operates  with  the  most  fatal  ef][ect  upon  the  success 
of  British  industries.  The  Emperor  of  Korea  Instructed 
Mr.  Bennett  to  order  forty  complete  telephones,  switch- 
boards, key-boards,  and  instruments,  all  intact.  Eric- 
son's,  of  Stockholm,  despatched  triplicate  cable  quota- 
tions, forwarding  by  express  shipment  triplicate  cata- 
logues and  photographs,  as  well  as  cases  containing 
models  of  their  different  styles,  with  samples  of  wet  and 
dry  cables.  One  of  the  two  British  firms,  to  whom  the 
order  had  been  submitted,  made  no  reply.  The  other, 
after  an  Interval  of  two  months,  dictated  a  letter  of  in- 
quiry as  to  the  chemical  qualities  of  the  soil,  and  the 
character  of  the  climatic  influences  to  which  the  wires, 
switch-boards,  and  Instruments  would  be  subjected! 

A  few  years  ago  a  demand  arose  for  cheap  needles 
md  fish-hooks.    The  attention  of  British  manufacturers 

HI 


KOREA 

was  drawn  to  the  necessity  of  supplying  a  needle  which 
could  be  bent  to  the  shape  of  a  fish-hook.  A  German 
manufacturer  got  wind  of  the  confidential  circular 
which  Mr.  Bennett  had  prepared,  and  forwarded  a 
large  assortment  of  needles  and  fish-hooks,  the  needles 
meeting  the  specified  requirements.  The  result  of  this 
enterprise  was  that  the  German  firm  skimmed  the  cream 
of  the  market.  The  English  needles  were  so  stiff  that 
they  snapped  at  once;  and  it  is  perhaps  unnecessary  to 
add  that,  beyond  the  few  packets  opened  for  the  pre- 
liminary examination,  not  one  single  order  for  these 
needles  has  been  taken. 

The  position  which  Great  Britain  fills  in  Korea  is 
destitute  of  any  great  commercial  or  political  signifi- 
cance. Unintelligible  inaction  characterises  British 
policy  there — as  elsewhere.  Our  sole  concession  is  one 
of  very  doubtful  value,  relating  to  a  gold  mine  at  Eun- 
san.  In  the  latter  part  of  1900  a  company  was  formed 
in  London,  under  the  style  of  the  British  and  Korean 
Corporation,  to  acquire  the  Pritchard  Morgan  Mining 
Concession  from  the  original  syndicate.  In  the  spring 
of  1 90 1  Mr.  E.  T.  McCarthy  took  possession  of  the 
property  on  behalf  of  the  new  owners.  Mr.  McCarthy 
had  had  considerable  experience  as  a  mine  manager. 
The  most  careful  management  was  necessary  to  the  suc- 
cess of  this  concern.  The  expenses  of  working  were  ex- 
traordinarily heavy,  as,  owing  to  the  absence  of  fuel, 
coal  had  to  be  imported  from  Japan.  A  coal  seam  had 
been  located  upon  the  concession,  but  nothing  was  then 

146 


BRITISH    INTERESTS 

known  as  to  its  suitability  for  steam  purposes.  It  is 
impossible  to  consider  the  undertaking  very  seriously. 
All  surface  work  was  stopped  during  my  residence  in 
Korea,  the  operations  for  the  past  few  months  having 
been  confined  to  underground  development  and  pros- 
pecting. There  was  talk  of  the  instalment  of  a  mill. 
A  vein  of  pyrrhotine,  carrying  copper  for  a  width  of 
13  ft.,  was  regarded  with  some  interest,  but  in  the  ab- 
sence of  machinery  nothing  of  much  consequence  could 
be  done. 

Another  concern,  Anglo-Chinese  In  Its  formation.  Is 
the  Oriental  Cigarette  and  Tobacco  Company,  Limited. 
The  capital  of  this  venture  is  registered  from  Hong- 
Kong.  Since  May  1902,  the  company  has  been  en- 
gaged at  Chemulpo  in  the  manufacture,  from  Rich- 
mond and  Korean  tobacco,  of  cigarettes  of  three  kinds. 
At  the  present  time  it  possesses  machinery  capable  of 
a  daily  output  of  one  million  cigarettes.  In  the  days  of 
Its  Infancy,  the  company  was  reduced  to  a  somewhat 
precarious  existence — the  early  weeks  of  its  career  pro- 
ducing no  returns  whatsoever.  Now,  however,  a 
brighter  period  has  dawned,  and  an  ultimate  prosperity 
Is  not  uncertain.  Cash  transactions,  in  the  sales  of  the 
cigarettes  manufactured  by  the  company,  began  In  July 
1902,  realising  by  the  end  of  February  1903,  £1515 
sterling;  to  this  must  be  added  credit  sales  of  £896  ster- 
ling— making  a  grand  total  for  the  first  few  months  of 
Its  existence  of  £2411  sterling.  A  large  staff  of  native 
workers  Is  permanently  employed. 

147 


KOREA 

Aside  from  this  company  and  the  mining  corpora- 
tion, British  industrial  activity  is  confined  almost  ex- 
clusively to  the  agency  which  Mr.  Bennett  so  ably  con- 
trols In  Chemulpo,  of  which  a  branch  Is  now  established 
In  the  capital,  and  the  Station  Hotel  which  Mr.  Ember- 
ley  conducts  at  Seoul.  Mr.  Jordan,  the  British  Minister 
in  Korea,  did  request  in  June  1903,  a  concession  for  a 
gold  mine  five  miles  square  In  Hwang-hal  Province. 
Apart  from  this,  the  apathy  of  the  British  merchant 
cannot  be  regarded  as  singular  when  business  houses  in 
London  direct  catalogues.  Intended  for  delivery  at 
Chemulpo,  to  the  British  VIce-Consul,  Korea,  Africa. 
Nor,  by  the  way,  Is  Korea  a  part  of  China.  Mr.  Em- 
berley  has  established  a  comfortable  and  very  prosper- 
ous hotel  In  the  capital,  while  at  Chemulpo  Mr.  Ben- 
nett has  opened  out  whatever  British  trade  exists  In 
Korea.  British  interests  are  safe  enough  In  his  hands, 
and  If  merchants  will  act  in  co-operation  with  him,  it 
might  still  be  possible  to  create  good  business.  In  spite 
of  the  competition  and  imitation  of  the  Japanese.  In 
this  respect  British  traders  are  not  unreasonably  ex- 
pected to  observe  the  custom,  prevailing  among  all  Chi- 
nese merchants,  of  giving  Korean  firms  an  extended 
credit.  Foreign  banks  in  the  Far  East  charge  seven  or 
eight  per  cent,  per  annum,  and  the  native  banks  ten  to 
fourteen  per  cent.,  which  represents  a  very  considerable 
advance  upon  home  rates.  In  the  opinion  of  Mr.  Ben- 
nett, who  is,  without  doubt,  one  of  the  most  astute  busi- 
ness men  in  the  Far  East,  no  little  Improvement  would 

148 


BRITISH    INTERESTS 

be  shown  in  the  Customs  return  of  British  imports,  If 
the  manufacturers  at  home  would  ship  goods  to  Korea 
on  consignment  to  firms,  whose  standing  and  bank 
guarantees  were  above  suspicion,  charging  thereon  only 
home  rates  of  Interest.  An  American  company,  en- 
gaged extensively  In  business  with  Korea,  never  draws 
against  shipments,  by  that  means  deriving  considerable 
advantage  over  Its  competitors.  I  commend  this  sug- 
gestion to  the  attention  of  the  British  shipper,  particu- 
larly as  trade  In  Korea  Is  largely  dependent  upon  the 
rice  crop.  In  the  train  of  a  bad  harvest  comes  a  reduc- 
tion of  prices.  Importers,  then,  w^ho  have  ordered 
stocks  beforehand,  find  themselves  placed  In  a  quandary. 
Their  stocks  are  left  upon  their  hands — It  may  be  for  a 
year,  or  even  longer — and  they  are  confronted  with  the 
necessity  of  meeting  the  excessive  rates  of  interest  cur- 
rent in  the  Far  East.  If  the  manufacturer  could  meet 
the  merchant  by  allowing  a  rate  of  Interest,  similar  to 
that  prevailing  at  home,  to  be  charged,  the  Importer 
of  British  goods  would  be  less  disinclined  to  indent 
ahead.  Under  existing  circumstances  the  merchant 
must  take  the  risk  of  ordering  In  the  spring  for  autumn 
delivery,  and  vice-versa;  on  the  other  hand,  China  and 
Japan,  being  within  a  few  days'  distance  of  Korea,  the 
importer  prefers  to  await  the  fulfilment  of  the  rice  crop, 
when,  as  occasion  requires,  he  can  cable  to  Shanghai, 
Osaka,  or  elsewhere  for  whatever  may  be  desired. 

Attached  to  the  English  Colony  in  Korea,  which 
numbers  one  hundred  and  forty-one,  there  Is  the  usual 

149 


KOREA 

complement  of  clergy  and  nursing  sisters,  under  the 
supervision  of  Bishop  Corfe,  the  chief  of  the  English 
Mission  In  Seoul.  Miss  Cooke,  a  distinguished  lady 
doctor  and  a  kind  friend  to  the  British  Colony,  Is  set- 
tled in  Seoul.  A  number  of  Englishmen  are  employed 
In  the  Korean  Customs;  their  services  contributing  so 
much  to  the  splendid  institution  which  Mr.  McLeavy 
Brown  has  created,  that  one  and  all  are  above  criticism. 
Mr.  McLeavy  Brown  would  be  the  first  to  acknowl- 
edge how  much  the  willing  assistance  of  his  staff  has 
contributed  to  his  success. 

The  importance  of  the  American  trade  In  Korea  is 
undeniable.  It  Is  composite  in  its  character,  carefully 
considered,  protected  by  the  influence  of  the  Minister, 
supported  by  the  energies  of  the  American  missionaries, 
and  controlled  by  two  firms,  whose  knowledge  of  the 
wants  of  Korea  Is  just  forty-eight  hours  ahead  of  the 
realisation  of  that  want  by  the  Korean.  This  is,  I  take 
it,  just  as  things  should  be.  The  signs  of  American 
activity,  in  the  capital  alone,  are  evident  upon  every 
side.  The  Seoul  Electric  Car  Company,  the  Seoul 
Electric  Light  Company,  and  the  Seoul  (Fresh  Spring) 
Water  Company  have  been  created  by  American  enter- 
prise, backed  up  by  the  "  llveness  "  and  'cuteness  of  the 
two  concessionaires,  whom  I  have  just  mentioned,  and 
pushed  along  by  little  diplomatic  attentions  upon  the 
part  of  the  American  Minister.  The  Seoul-Chemulpo 
Railway  Concession  was  also  secured  by  an  American, 
Mr.  Morse,  the  agent  of  the  American  Trading  Com- 

150 


AMERICAN    INTERESTS 

pany,  and  subsequently  sold  to  the  Japanese  company 
In  whom  the  rights  of  the  concession  are  now  vested. 
The  charter  of  the  National  Bank  of  Korea  has  also 
been  awarded  to  these  Americans,  and  it  is  now  in  proc- 
ess of  creation.  The  only  mine  in  Korea  which  pays  is 
owned  by  an  American  syndicate ;  and,  by  the  way.  Dr. 
Allen,  the  American  Minister,  possesses  an  intelligible 
comprehension  of  the  Korean  tongue. 

There  is  a  large  American  colony  in  Korea,  totalling 
In  all  two  hundred  and  forty.  One  hundred  live  in 
Seoul;  sixty-five  are  employed  upon  the  American  Mine 
at  Un-san;  thirty-four  live  at  Pyong-yang.  Five  are  in 
the  service  of  the  Korean  Government;  ten  are  asso- 
ciated with  the  railway;  the  famous  two  are  engaged 
in  business  and  the  remainder  comprise  the  staffs  of  the 
Legation  and  Consulate,  and  a  medley  of  missionaries. 
American  trade  with  Korea  embraces  kerosene,  flour, 
mining  machinery,  railway  and  mining  supplies,  house- 
hold goods  and  agricultural  implements,  clothing  and 
provisions,  drills,  sheetings,  cotton  goods,  and  cotton 
yarn.  The  American  mine  at  Un-san  employs  seven- 
teen Japanese  and  one  hundred  and  thirty-three  Chi- 
nese, one  hundred  Europeans,  of  whom  thirty-five  are 
American,  and  four  thousand  natives,  whose  wages 
range  from  8  J.  to  is.  id.  daily.  The  private  company 
that  has  acquired  this  concession  works  five  separate 
mines  with  enormous  success;  four  mills,  two  of  forty 
stamps  and  two  of  twenty  stamps,  are  of  long  standing. 
An  additional  mill  of  eighty  stamps  Is  of  more  recent 

151 


KOREA 

construction.  During  1901  gold  to  the  amount  of 
£150,000  was  exported  by  the  company,  while  in  the 
year  following  this  sum  was  very  vastly  exceeded.  The 
area  of  the  concession  is  eight  hundred  square  miles. 

The  future  alone  can  disclose  whether  Korea  is  to 
be  absorbed  by  the  Japanese.  At  present,  the  Japanese 
population  in  Korea  exceeds  twenty  thousand,  the 
actual  estimate  falling  short  of  twenty-five  thousand. 
The  Japanese  control  the  railway  between  Chemulpo 
and  Seoul,  as  well  as  the  important  trunk  line  to  Fusan, 
an  undertaking  now  in  course  of  construction  and  under 
the  immediate  supervision  of  the  Japanese  Government. 
The  new  company  has  since  absorbed  the  parent  line 
from  Seoul  to  Chemulpo.  The  capital  of  this  company 
is  twenty-five  million  yen,  £2,500,000,  which  is  to  be 
raised  in  annual  instalments  of  five  million  yen,  count- 
ing from  the  time  when  one-tenth  of  the  first  instalment 
of  five  million  yen  was  found.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the 
preliminary  turning  of  the  first  sods  took  place  at  Fusan 
on  September  21st,  and  at  Yong-tong-po  on  August 
20th,  in  the  summer  of  1901.  From  that  moment,  the 
Japanese  Government  made  itself  responsible  for  the 
payment  of  the  debenture  bonds,  and  guaranteed  six 
per  cent,  upon  the  company's  subscribed  capital  for  a 
period  of  fifteen  years.*    Each  share  Is  of  the  value  of 

*  The  Japanese  Government,  on  December  22nd,  1903,  decided 
to  find  the  capital  necessary  for  the  immediate  completion  of  the  rail- 
way. An  additional  million  sterling  has  been  allotted  for  this  purpose, 
and  the  line  will  be  finished  within  the  course  of  1904. 

152 


JAPANESE    INTERESTS 

£5,  the  money  to  be  called  up  as  required,  each  call  be- 
ing at  the  rate  of  ten  shillings  per  share.  The  whole 
of  the  400,000  shares,  which  was  the  original  allot- 
ment, was  at  once  taken  up,  Japanese  and  Koreans  alone 
being  eligible  as  shareholders.  The  estimated  cost  of 
the  line  is  £9000  per  mile.  Work  has  been  completed 
as  far  as  Syu-won,  a  distance  of  twenty-six  miles,  over 
which  section  trains  are  already  running.  Construction 
is,  of  course,  being  rapidly  pushed  forward,  and  work- 
ing parties  are  engaged  at  a  number  of  places  along  the 
line  of  route. 

The  length  of  the  Seoul-Fusan  Railway  will  be  287 
miles.  It  is  confidently  expected  that  the  undertaking 
will  be  completed  within  six  years.  There  will  be  some 
forty  stations,  including  the  terminal  depots,  and  it  Is, 
perhaps  optimistically,  estimated  that  the  scheduled 
time  for  the  journey  from  Fusan  to  Seoul  will  be  twelve 
hours,  which  Is  an  average  of  twenty-four  miles  an  hour, 
including  stops,  the  actual  rate  of  speed  being  approxi- 
mately some  thirty  miles  an  hour.  The  present  work- 
ing speed  of  the  Seoul-Chemulpo  railway  requires  a  lit- 
tle less  than  two  hours  to  make  the  journey  between 
Seoul  and  Chemulpo,  a  distance  of  twenty-five  miles, 
from  which  It  will  be  seen  that  considerable  Improve- 
ment must  take  place  if  the  distance  between  Seoul  and 
Fusan  is  to  be  accomplished  within  twelve  hours. 

In  the  first  few  miles  of  the  journey,  the  trunk  line 
to  Fusan  will  run  over  the  metals  of  the  Seoul-Chemulpo 
railway.    The  start  will  be  from  the  station  outside  the 

153 


KOREA 

south  gate  of  the  capital ;  the  second  stop  will  be  Yong- 
san,  and  the  third  No-dol.  At  the  next  station,  Yong- 
tong-po,  the  railway  leaves  the  line  of  the  Seoul-Che- 
mulpo branch  to  run  due  south  to  Si-heung,  where  it 
bears  slightly  eastward  until  reaching  An-yang  and  Syu- 
won,  some  twenty-six  miles  distant  from  Seoul.  At  this 
point  the  railway  resumes  its  southerly  direction  and 
passes  through  Tai-hoang-kyo,  O-san-tong,  and  Chin- 
eui,  where  it  crosses  the  border  of  the  Kyong-keui  Pro- 
vince into  Chyung-chyong  Province,  and  reaches  the 
town  of  Pyong-tak.  The  line  then  runs  near  the  coast, 
proceeding  due  south  to  Tun-po,  where  it  will  touch 
tide  water,  and,  bearing  due  south,  reaches  On-yang, 
sixty-nine  miles  from  Seoul.  It  then  proceeds  in  a 
south-easterly  direction  to  Chyon-eul,  and  once  again 
turning  directly  south  crosses  the  famous  Keum  River 
and  enters  the  important  town  of  Kong-chyu.  From 
Kong-chyu,  which  is  ninety-six  miles  from  Seoul,  and 
by  Its  fortunate  possession  of  facilities  for  water  tran- 
sit. Is  destined  to  become  an  important  distributing  cen- 
tre, the  line  follows  Its  southward  course  towards  Sln- 
gyo,  where  an  Important  branch  line  will  be  constructed 
towards  the  south-west  to  connect  Kang-kyong,  the  chief 
commercial  centre  of  the  province,  with  the  main  sys- 
tem. It  Is  also  probable  that  a  further  extension  of  the 
line  from  Sin-gyo  towards  the  south-west  will  be  pro- 
jected, In  order  to  make  communication  with  Mokpo, 
the  coast  port  through  which  passes  the  grain  trade  of 
Chyol-la  and  Kyong-syang  Provinces. 

154 


JAPANESE    INTERESTS 

The  town  of  Sin-gyo  marks  one  hundred  and  twenty- 
five  miles  from  Seoul;  beyond  Sin-gyo,  the  south-west- 
erly direction,  which  the  line  is  now  following,  changes 
by  an  abrupt  sweep  to  the  east,  where,  after  passing 
through  Ryonsan,  a  western  spur  of  the  great  mountain 
chain  of  the  peninsula  is  crossed,  and  the  town  of  Chin- 
san  entered.  Still  running  east  to  Keum-san,  the  valley 
of  the  southern  branch  of  the  Yang  River  is  traversed 
in  its  upper  waters,  until,  after  following  the  river  in  a 
north-easterly  direction  for  some  little  distance,  the 
road  takes  advantage  of  a  gap  in  the  mountains, 
through  which  the  Yang  River  breaks,  to  cross  the 
stream  and  turn  due  east  to  touch  Yang-san,  coming  to 
a  pause  one  hundred  and  forty-one  miles  from  Seoul  in 
Yong-dong.  From  Yong-dong  the  railway  moves  for- 
ward north-east  to  Whan-gan,  one  hundred  and  fifty- 
three  miles  from  Seoul,  the  place  lying  close  within  the 
mountain  range  but  a  few  miles  distant  from  the  Chyu- 
pung  Pass — to  cross  which  will  call  for  more  than  ordi- 
nary engineering  skill.  Leaving  the  pass  and  running 
slightly  south  of  east,  the  railway  proceeds  towards 
the  Nak-tong  River,  through  Keum-san,  crossing  the 
stream  at  Wai-koan,  a  few  miles  north-east  of  Tai-ku, 
a  town  of  historical  importance  some  two  hundred  miles 
from  Seoul.  The  railway  then  follows  the  valley  of 
the  Nak-tong,  and  passes  to  the  east  of  the  river, 
through  Hyon-pung,  Chyang-pyong,  Ryong-san,  Syok- 
kyo-chyon,  Ryang-san,  Mun-chyon,  Tonglai,  where  the 
Nak-tong  River  is  again  met.    The  direction  from  Tai- 

155 


KOREA 

ku  is  south-east  all  the  way  to  Fusan,  whence  the  line 
runs  beside  the  river.  At  Kwi-po  it  strikes  across  to  the 
native  town  of  Old  Fusan,  thence  running  round  the 
Bay  to  its  terminus  in  the  port. 

This  railway,  which  provides  for  extensive  reclama- 
tion works  in  the  harbour  of  Fusan,  has  become  already 
an  economic  factor  of  very  great  importance.  More 
particularly  is  this  manifest  when  it  is  remembered  that 
the  country  through  which  the  line  passes  Is  know^n  as 
the  granary  of  Korea.  Developments  of  a  substantial 
character  must  follow  the  completion  of  this  undertak- 
ing, the  position  of  Japan  In  Korea  receiving  more  em- 
phatic confirmation  from  this  work  than  from  anything 
by  which  her  previous  domination  of  the  country  has 
been  demonstrated.  It  will  promote  the  speedy  de- 
velopment of  the  rich  agricultural  and  mining  resources 
of  Southern  Korea,  and  as  these  new  areas  become  ac- 
cessible by  means  of  the  railway.  It  is  difficult  to  see  how 
the  Influx  of  Japanese  Immigrants  and  settlers  to  the 
southern  half  of  the  kingdom  can  be  avoided.  Indeed, 
a  very  serious  situation  for  the  Korean  Government  has 
'  already  arisen,  since  by  far  the  greatest  number  of  the 
men,  engaged  upon  the  construction  of  the  Seoul-Fusan 
Railway,  have  signified  their  Intention  of  becoming  per- 
manent settlers  in  the  country.  In  the  case  of  these  new 
settlers,  the  company  has  granted  from  the  land,  which 
it  controls  on  either  side  of  the  line,  a  small  plot  to  each 
family  for  the  purposes  of  settlement.  While  the  man 
works  upon  the  line,  his  family  erect  a  house  and  open 

156 


JAPANESE   INTERESTS 

up  the  ground.  Whether  or  no  the  action  of  the  com- 
pany can  be  justified  to  the  extent  which  has  already 
taken  place,  the  policy  has  resulted  in  the  establish- 
ment of  a  continuous  series  of  Japanese  settlements  ex- 
tending through  the  heart  of  Southern  Korea  from 
Seoul  to  Fusan. 

From  time  to  time  the  Japanese  Government  itself 
has  attempted  to  stem  the  torrent  of  Japanese  migra- 
tion to  Korea.  But  the  success  of  the  colonies  already 
settled  there  has  made  it  a  delicate  and  a  difficult  task 
— one  which,  in  the  future,  the  Japanese  Government 
may  be  expected  to  leave  alone.  The  railway  once 
open,  the  still  greater  stimulus  which  will  be  imparted 
to  agriculture  in  the  southern  half  of  the  kingdom,  will 
appeal  to  many  thousands  of  other  would-be  settlers. 
Whatever  objection  the  Korean  Government  may  offer 
to  this  invasion,  it  is  quite  certain  that  with  the  very 
heart  of  the  agricultural  districts  laid  bare,  Korea  must 
be  prepared  to  see  a  rapid  increase  in  her  already  large 
Japanese  population.  In  a  great  part  the  increase  is 
already  an  accomplished  fact.  The  influence  of  Japan 
is  already  supreme  in  Korea.  It  is  paramount  in  the 
Palace ;  and  it  is  upheld  by  settlements  in  every  part  of 
the  country.  In  the  capital  itself  there  is  a  flourishing 
colony  of  four  thousand  adults.  She  has  established 
her  own  police  force;  created  her  own  post-office,  tele- 
phone, cable  and  wireless  telegraph  system.  She  has 
opened  mines — her  principal  mine  is  at  Chik-san — and 
has  introduced  many  social  and  political  reforms,  be- 

157 


KOREA 

sides  being  the  greatest  economic  factor  in  the  trade  of 
the  kingdom. 

Little  development  has  distinguished  the  concessions 
secured  by  the  French  in  Korea.  A  railway  concession 
was  abandoned  a  few  years  ago ;  and  an  existing  charter, 
covering  certain  mining  rights,  has  almost  expired.  M. 
Colin  de  Plancy,  the  amiable  and  energetic  French 
Minister  in  Korea,  has,  however,  succeeded  in  re-ar- 
ranging the  terms  of  the  abandoned  concession.  In 
addition  to  this,  in  June  1903,  he  applied  for  a  new 
gold-mining  concession  in  Chyung-chyong  Province. 
The  concession,  which  has  been  revived,  was  granted 
so  far  back  as  1896;  but  it  was  forfeited  long  since,  and 
only  recently  revoked.  By  the  old  agreement  a  French 
syndicate.  La  Compagnie  de  Fines-Lille,  received  a 
charter  to  construct  a  line  of  railway  between  Seoul  and 
Wi-ju,  the  important  frontier  port  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Yalu.  The  construction  of  this  line,  which  will  form, 
together  with  the  Seoul-Fusan  railway,  the  main  trunk 
line  of  the  kingdom,  will  no  longer  be  the  private  specu- 
lation of  a  French  syndicate,  the  Imperial  Government 
itself  having  undertaken  to  make  the  road.  Two  years 
ago  the  French  Minister  succeeded  in  reviving  the  inter- 
est of  the  Korean  Government  in  the  scheme,  and 
secured  an  undertaking  that  the  services  of  French 
engineers  only  should  be  employed,  and  that  the  ma- 
terials for  the  new  work  should  be  supplied  by  French 
houses.  In  continuation  of  this  most  excellent  piece  of 
diplomacy,  M.  Colin  de  Plancy  was  instrumental,  at  a 

158 


FRENCH    INTERESTS 

little  later  date,  in  bringing  about  the  creation  of  the 
North-Western  Railway  Bureau,  of  which  the  First 
Secretary  of  the  French  Legation,  M.  G.  Lefevre,  was 
made  managing  director,  with  Yi  Yong-ik  as  its  Presi- 
dent. M.  de  Lapeyriere  became  the  chief  consulting 
engineer  to  the  railway;  M.  Bourdaret,  and  a  small 
army  of  French  engineers,  master  mechanics,  over- 
seers, and  skilled  workmen  were  placed  upon  the  pay- 
sheets  of  the  company. 

The  Korean  Government  made  itself  responsible  for 
the  annual  disbursement  of  one  hundred  thousand  yen 
(£10,000)  on  this  railway,  and  construction  began  In 
the  spring  of  1902.  Operations  were  suspended,  how- 
ever, owing  to  the  prevalence  of  the  rainy  season.  Work 
was  resumed  again  In  the  autumn  and,  again,  after  a 
short  spell  of  activity,  stopped.  Lack  of  the  necessary 
funds  Is  doubtless  the  reason;  yet,  nevertheless,  the 
Korean  Government  refused  an  offer  for  the  right  to 
construct  the  line  from  a  Russian  financier.  This  pre- 
liminary stage  of  the  line  traverses  districts  famous  for 
their  mineral  and  agricultural  resources,  and  connects 
the  present  capital,  Seoul,  with  two  former  seats  of  Cen- 
tral Government,  Song-do  and  Pyong-yang,  even  now 
rich  and  populous  towns.  It  is  Intended  to  complete 
the  line  to  Song-do  at  once,  pushing  forward  towards 
Wi-ju,  In  the  hope  of  connecting  with  the  Trans-Si- 
berian system,  when  the  Government  Is  able  to  find  the 
funds.  The  distance  between  Seoul  and  Song-do  by  the 
line  of  railway  Is  eighty  kilometres.     In  round  figures 

159 


KOREA 

the  cost  of  construction  is  placed  at  about  £260,000; 
the  traffic  receipts  are  valued  at  £12,000,  £10,000  of 
which  will  be  contributed  by  passenger  traffic.  The 
annual  working  expenses  are  placed  at  £8000;  and  It 
Is  "  hoped  "  that  the  Seoul-Song-do  line  will  be  opened 
to  general  traffic  within  two  years.  The  figures  are  al- 
together French  and  airy. 

A  survey  of  the  line  between  Seoul  and  Song-do 
shows  to  some  extent  the  nature  of  the  work  which 
awaits  the  French  engineers.  Gradients  will  be  about 
21  feet  to  the  mile;  embankment-building  and  excava- 
tion give  13,000  cubic  metres  to  the  kilometre;  twenty- 
six  per  cent,  of  the  line  will  be  curved,  the  radius  of  the 
most  acute  bend  being  some  200  metres;  twenty-five 
moderately  large  bridges,  one  hundred  and  fifty  small 
bridges  and  culverts  will  figure  In  construction.  The 
Im-chin  River  will  be  crossed,  at  first,  by  ferry;  In  the 
end,  however,  a  bridge,  five  hundred  feet  In  length, 
will  span  this  break  In  the  line.  The  gauge  of  the  road 
would  be  1.43  m.;  the  ties  will  be  2.50  m.  long,  30  m. 
in  width,  1.25  m.  thick.  There  will  be  1.70  kilometres 
for  the  purpose  of  side-tracking,  and  an  off-line,  1.30 
kilometres  long,  will  branch  to  Han-chu,  on  the  Han 
River.  Between  Seoul  and  Song-do  there  will  be  six 
stations  and  four  signal  points;  the  rolling  stock  will 
consist  of  five  locomotives  of  the  Mallet  type,  five  com- 
bined first  and  second  class  and  eight  third  class  coaches, 
five  luggage  cars,  and  twenty-five  freight  cars.  This 
comprises  the  general  requirements  of  the  proposed 

160 


FRENCH    INTERESTS 

line,  evolved  out  of  an  abandoned  concession  by  the 
astuteness  and  activity  of  the  French  Minister. 

The  line  will  proceed  from  outside  the  West  Gate 
of  Seoul,  where  the  terminus  will  be  48.50  m.  above  the 
sea  level,  towards  Yang-wha-chin,  crossing  the  A-o-ya 
Pass  at  59.50  m.  Descending  to  the  valley  of  the  Han 
River,  and  17  m.  above  tide-water,  the  line  traverses 
the  district  of  Han-ju,  and  the  western  county  of  Ko- 
yang,  leaving  the  Han  valley  3 1  kilometres  from  Seoul. 
The  line  then  crosses  the  Kyo-wha  valley,  at  an  eleva- 
tion of  15  m.,  and  at  42  kilometres  from  Seoul  crosses  a 
tributary  of  the  Im-chin  River  at  Mun-san-po.  Fifty- 
one  kilometres  from  Seoul  the  railway  will  meet  the 
Im-chin  River  ferry,  where  passengers  and  freight, 
under  the  existing  provisional  arrangements,  will  be 
transferred  to  a  second  train  upon  the  remote  side  of 
the  river.  The  line  then  crosses  the  Chang-dan  district, 
and  moving  up  the  Valley  of  Song-do  enters  the  Song- 
do  terminus  at  an  elevation  of  40  m.  The  distance  by 
rail  IS  somewhat  shorter  than  by  road,  and  unexpectedly 
few  obstacles  have  been  met  with  In  the  course  of  con- 
struction. A  rough  survey  has  been  made  north  from 
Song-do,  from  which  point  the  railway  will  run  due 
west  to  Hal-chu,  then  due  north  to  Pyong-yang  through 
SIn-chyon  and  An-ak.  Beyond  this  point  to  WI-ju  no 
survey  has  been  attempted. 

It  Is  questionable,  however.  If  the  French  line  prom- 
ises such  satisfactory  returns  as  those  which  may  be 
expected  from  the  southern  railway.     When  the  two 

161 


KOREA 

lines  have  been  completed  and  Fusan  is  In  direct  com- 
munication with  the  Siberian  Railway,  some  definite 
expansion  In  the  northern  areas  of  the  kingdom  may 
be  anticipated,  and  the  railway  will  be  In  a  position  to 
compete  with  the  junks  of  the  Yalu.  But,  apart  from 
the  border  trade,  there  Is  little  settled  Industry  which 
may  be  relied  on  to  contribute  traffic  to  the  carrying 
capacity  of  this  line;  nor  Is  It  likely  that  the  mines, 
whose  concessions  may  be  said  to  border  the  line  of 
railway,  will  accept  It  as  a  medium  of  transportation 
so  long  as  they  are  able  to  make  use  of  the  existing 
facilities  for  water  transit,  with  which  the  American 
and  English  mines  are  served.  Of  course,  It  cannot  be 
predicted  what  mining  and  agricultural  developments 
may  take  place  In  the  northern  regions  of  Korea.  Gold 
and  coal,  copper  and  Iron  are  known  to  exist.  The  de- 
velopment of  this  mineral  wealth  may  open  up  the 
country,  and  the  presence  of  the  mines  will  create  a 
demand  for  the  local  production  of  certain  varieties  of 
food-stuffs.  These  channels  of  revenue  to  the  railway 
are  highly  problematical.  In  the  absence  of  any  specific 
value,  which  may  be  attached  to  the  prospects  of  the 
French  line,  a  comparison  between  the  relative  Impor- 
tance of  the  two  undertakings  confirms  the  superiority 
of  the  Japanese  concession  upon  every  count.  The 
strategic,  as  well  as  the  commercial,  significance  of  the 
southern  trunk  line  must  impress  the  Koreans  with  its 
very  positive  qualities. 

There  are  some  eighty  French  subjects  in  Korea,  of 

162 


RAILWAYS   AND    MINING    FICTIONS 

whom  forty  are  French  priests  and  one  a  bishop.  Three 
are  associated  with  the  North-Western  Railway  Bu- 
reau; two  are  in  the  Korean  Customs;  two  have  been 
given  employment  In  the  Imperial  Mines,  and  one  has 
become  legal  adviser  to  the  Imperial  Government.  One 
Is  attached  to  the  French  School;  one  manages,  most 
admirably  and  successfully,  the  Imperial  Korean  Post 
Office.  Two  are  working  In  the  Korean  Arsenal,  and 
three  assist  in  the  management  of  the  Hotel  du  Palais. 
The  members  of  the  French  colony  have  been  lately 
Increased  by  the  addition  of  a  number  of  French  en- 
gineers, who  have  fallen  upon  the  Korean  Government 
in  the  hope  of  finding  employment  with  the  Railway 
Bureau.  These  transitory  visitors  are  not  included  in 
my  figures. 

The  German  colony  is  small  and  insignificant.  Ger- 
man interests,  however,  have  been  given  the  concession 
of  a  railway  line  from  Seoul  to  Won-san.  A  mine,  con- 
trolled by  a  German  syndicate,  and  located  at  Tong- 
ko-kal,  has  been  abandoned  with  the  loss  of  the  many 
thousand  pounds  which  had  been  laid  out  upon  ma- 
chinery and  mining  material  in  general.  Germans  pos- 
sess no  other  concessions.  There  is  an  important  firm 
In  Chemulpo,  and  this  house  has  established  a  branch 
in  Seoul.  A  distinguishing  feature  of  the  business  is 
that  there  are  Germans  In  both  the  Seoul  and  Chemulpo 
offices  who  are  thoroughly  familiar  with  the  Korean 
language.  This,  as  the  country  develops,  will  not  be 
without  effect;  and  the  fact  seems  to  illustrate  very  ad- 

163 


KOREA 

mirably  the  methodical  system  upon  which  German 
commerce  In  the  Far  East  is  built  up.  The  Court  band 
has  been  entrusted  to  the  training  of  a  German  profes- 
sor. The  effect  is  very  solemn,  and  perhaps  discloses 
the  necessity  for  the  introduction  of  a  German  physician 
to  the  Imperial  Household.  This  counterblast  to  the 
position,  which  a  singular  power  of  sympathy  and  great 
professional  ability  has  won  for  Miss  Cooke,  is  of  re- 
cent accomplishment.  This  English  lady  doctor  has 
been  for  many  years  physlclan-ln-ordinary  to  the  Im- 
perial Household,  and  enjoys  the  complete  confidence 
of  the  Court.  Miss  Cooke  is  the  only  foreigner  who 
has  succeeded  in  overcoming  native  prejudice  and  sus- 
picion entirely. 

The  battle  of  concessions  is  as  keen  in  Korea  as  in 
China.  The  latest  Power  to  interest  itself  in  the  ex- 
ploitation of  the  mineral  deposits  of  Korea  is  Belgium, 
hitherto  without  special  concern  in  the  development  of 
the  mining  interests  of  the  kingdom.  Now,  however, 
Belgium  has  come  forward,  and  it  is  understood  that  a 
concession,  nine  hundred  square  /i*  in  extent,  has  been 
granted  to  its  nationals.  The  Belgians  have  undertaken 
to  lend  the  Korean  Government  4,000,000  yen,  receiv- 
ing in  exchange  the  lease  of  the  mines  for  twenty-five 
years.  The  concession  is  situated  at  Ta-bak  Mountain, 
at  the  point  where  the  Chyung-chyong,  Kyong-syang 
and  Kang-won  Provinces  meet.     At  this  moment  it  is 

*  Ten  //  equal  three  English  miles. 
164 


BELGIAN    INTERESTS 

impossible  to  state  the  value  of  this  new  concession;  but 
the  Belgians  are  shrewd,  close-fisted  people.  It  is 
doubtful,  therefore,  if  their  venture  will  be  as  unfortu- 
nate as  our  own,  or  the  German,  has  been. 

Adverting  to  the  foreign  trade  of  Korea  again, 
foreign  merchants  possess  a  very  definite  grievance 
against  the  Japanese  manufacturing  houses  who  cater 
for  the  Korean  markets.  After  the  closest  investiga- 
tion, I  venture  to  assert  there  are  but  few  of  the  so- 
called  foreign-made  articles,  exposed  to  sale  in  the  shops 
of  the  Japanese  settlements  in  any  of  the  open  ports  in 
Korea,  that  are  not  most  shameless  imitations.  For 
the  most  part  they  are  concocted  in  Japan,  and  embel- 
lished with  the  necessary  designs  and  trade  marks,  with 
some  imperceptible  modification.  The  illegality  of  this 
practice  is  incontrovertible.  In  the  absence  of  any 
supervision  upon  the  part  of  the  Korean  Customs,  or  by 
representatives  of  merchants  affected  by  these  tricks,  it 
is  difficult  to  see  how  they  may  be  avoided.  I  add  a 
table,  showing  the  various  articles  counterfeited  by 
Japanese  manufacturers  with  which  I  am  personally 
familiar,  and  which  are  on  sale  under  false  descriptions. 
In  each  instance  the  imitation  comes  from  Japan. 

America  : 

Kerosene,  Standard  Oil  Co.  Californian  wines,  hock,  and  claret. 

Richmond  Gem  cigarettes.  Eagle  Brand  Milk. 

Armour's  canned  meats.  Drugs. 
Californian  canned  fruit. 

i6s 


Soap,  Pears. 

Matches,  Bryant  and  May's. 
Sauces,  Lea  and  Perrin. 
Needles  and  cottons. 


Wines,  claret  and  hock. 


KOREA 

Great  Britain  : 

Alkalies,    Brunner,     Mond,    and 

Company. 
Jams,  Crosse  and  Blackwell. 
Turkey   Reds,   John    Orr-Ewing 
and  Company. 

France  : 

Photographic  materials. 


Germany  : 
Quinine,    Messrs.   C.    A.    Boeh-     Needles. 

ringer's.  Pianos,  Berlin. 

Hardware. 

Sweden  : 
Matches. 

Holland  : 
Butter.  Liqueurs  and  spirits. 

Denmark  : 

Butter. 

India  : 
Cotton  fabrics  and  yarns. 

Switzerland  : 
Swiss  milk,  Nestle's. 

Japanese  kerosene  oil  comes  over  in  cans  which  ex- 
actly reproduce  the  pattern  of  the  Standard  Oil  Com- 
pany. 

John  Orr-Ewing  and  Company's  Turkey  reds,  in 
breadths  of  27  in.  and  40  yds.  long,  and  colour  fast, 
become  27  in.  in  breadth,  37J^  yds.  in  length,  the  colour 

166 


COUNTERFEITED    IMPORTS 

Is  not  fast,  the  material  shrinks  and  the  weight  is  5  lbs. 
deficient. 

The  trade  mark  of  the  firm,  *'  Parrot  Brand,"  with  a 
picture  of  the  bird.  Is  the  most  perfect  imitation  Imag- 
inable. 

Imitations  of  Nestle's  milk,  Bryant  and  May's 
matches,  Boehringer's  quinine,  and  many  other  articles 
have  been  repeatedly  denounced  by  the  firms. 


167 


CHAPTER   XIY 

Some  account  of  the  treaty  ports  ;  Won-san,  Fusan,  Mok-po — 
Character  of  export  and  import  trade — Local  industries 

THE  oldest  of  the  settlements  in  Korea  Is  the  port 
of  Won-san,  situated  upon  the  eastern  shores  of 
the  kingdom,  half-way  between  Fusan  and  Vladlvos- 
tock. 

The  picturesqueness  of  Its  setting  makes  the  spacious 
harbour  of  this  bustling  treaty  port  a  graceful  conclu- 
sion to  any  tour  which  has  had  for  Its  object  the  inspec- 
tion of  the  scenic  loveliness  of  the  Diamond  Mountains. 
There  is  little  Indeed  to  disturb  the  placid  enjoyment  of 
life  amid  the  pine-clad  bluffs  and  frowning  headlands 
which  surround  the  broad  waters  of  the  bay.  The  fact 
of  passing  from  the  seclusion  of  wild  valleys  and  rugged 
heights,  sheltering  only  the  monasteries  of  Buddha,  into 
the  lively  atmosphere  of  a  treaty  port  does  not  destroy 
the  Illusions  which  any  stay  In  the  lofty  regions  of  these 
Twelve  Thousand  Peaks  necessarily  fosters. 

Within  wooded  cliffs,  which  hang  above  a  fringe  of 
silver  sand,  looking  out  over  a  harbour  forty  square 
miles  in  extent,  where  mountains  encompass  every  quar- 
ter of  the  horizon,  and  rocky  islets,  verdant  with  vegeta- 

i68 


WON-SAN 

tlon,  stud  a  sapphire  sea,  there  lies  a  spot  where  the 
fleets  of  the  world  might  swing  at  anchor  with  perfect 
safety,  in  perfect  isolation.  It  is  certainly  a  wonderful 
harbour;  and  worthy  of  the  commotion  caused  at  inter- 
vals by  the  desire  of  Russia  to  secure  possession  of  the 
prize.  The  superb  advantages  with  which  it  is  endowed 
make  it  an  object  of  soHcitude  to  the  Powers.  If  pos- 
session of  this  harbour  were  coupled  with  the  occupa- 
tion of  Vladivostock  and  Port  Arthur,  the  control  of 
those  northern  seas  would  rest  with  the  Russian  fleet. 
Otherwise,  it  is  a  peaceful  place  to  be  the  centre  of  so 
much  political  turmoil. 

Won-san,  the  treaty  port,  is  situated  in  the  south-west 
corner  of  the  harbour.  The  northern  arm  of  the  har- 
bour is  known  as  Port  Lazareff;  the  south-eastern  por- 
tion is  Broughton  Bay,  the  name  which  is  usually  given 
to  the  entire  harbour.  Captain  W.  R.  Broughton,  the 
English  navigator,  first  entered  it  on  October  4,  1797,  In 
his  sloop-of-war  of  16  guns.  Providence.  Port  Lazareff 
is  about  sixteen  miles  from  Won-san,  In  a  westerly  direc- 
tion across  the  bay,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Dun  River.  It 
is  the  point  which  Russia  was  credited  with  the  inten- 
tion of  securing  for  the  terminus  of  her  Trans-Siberian 
Railway.  There  are  two  entrances  Into  Broughton  Bay, 
one  giving  direct  admission  Into  Port  Lazareff.  Russian 
men-of-war  make  the  most  of  this  advantage  In  visiting 
the  harbour,  for  It  enables  them  to  enter  without  reveal- 
ing their  presence  to  the  authorities  upon  shore.  Upon 
one  occasion,  when  I  was  visiting  the  neighbourhood,  I 

169 


KOREA 

surprised  parties  from  two  Russian  men-of-war  engaged 
in  surveying  the  hills  and  taking  soundings  of  the  an- 
chorages; their  presence  was  quite  unsuspected  by  the 
Japanese  Consul  or  by  the  Commissioner  of  Customs. 

The  bay  is  well  protected  by  chains  of  mountains,  its 
physical  perfections  in  this  respect  rendering  it  of  pecu- 
liar value  as  a  naval  base.  The  channel  into  the  harbour 
is  broad,  deep,  and  free  from  all  encumbrances.  Nu- 
merous islands  are  so  situated  about  the  mouth  that 
every  approach  could  be  strongly  protected.  Besides 
being  easy  of  access,  there  is  an  average  depth  of  about 
nine  fathoms  upon  a  firm  bottom.  The  water  Is  free 
from  Ice  in  winter,  notwithstanding  the  severity  of  the 
cold  in  this  region.  Inexhaustible  supplies  of  spring 
water  can  be  obtained;  and.  In  the  proper  season,  the 
shooting  and  fishing  afford  very  varied  sport.  These 
are,  however,  but  the  accessories  to  a  harbour,  which.  If 
it  were  fortified  and  converted  Into  a  first-class  naval  sta- 
tion, would  be  the  equal  of  Vladivostock  and  superior 
to  every  other  station  In  the  Far  East.  It  Is  far  in 
advance  of  anything  which  the  Powers  have  seized  In 
China. 

Between  Hong  Kong  and  Dalny,  the  commercial  har- 
bour of  Port  Arthur,  which  Russia  has  endeavoured  to 
Improve  since  it  belonged  to  China,  there  Is  no  anchor- 
age which  could  be  so  readily  and  inexpensively  adapted 
to  the  requirements  of  a  first-class  naval  station  of  a 
first-class  naval  Power.  At  present,  Won-san  harbour  Is 
visited  only  by  the  squadrons  which  Russia  and  Japan 

170 


WON-SAN 

maintain  In  this  water.  Although  there  Is  a  flourishing 
Japanese  settlement  upon  shore,  no  Japanese  gun-boat  Is 
detached  as  yet  for  guardship  duties.  At  Fusan  and 
Chemulpo,  however,  the  practice  of  detailing  ships  for 
port  duties  Is  carefully  observed,  Japan  losing  few 
opportunities  to  Impress  upon  her  neighbour  In  particu- 
lar, and  the  world  In  general,  the  significance  of  her 
interests  In  Korea. 

Won-san  was  opened  to  Japanese  trade  In  1880,  be- 
coming a  general  foreign  settlement  on  November  3rd, 
three  years  later.  Although  Its  subsequent  development 
is  due  entirely  to  the  Industry  of  the  Japanese,  and  their 
undoubted  commercial  sagacity,  its  imports  of  foreign 
trade  in  recent  years  have  contributed  to  the  position 
which  It  now  takes  In  the  commercial  progress  of  the 
country.  The  economic  expansion  of  the  port,  however, 
has  been  promoted  by  the  business  resulting  from  the 
immigration  of  Japanese  settlers  and  the  doubling  of 
the  native  population.  Materials  for  clothing,  cotton 
goods,  grass-cloth,  and  silk  are  pre-eminent  in  the  local 
requirements.  A  comparison  of  the  annual  returns  dis- 
closes a  steady  advance  in  its  prosperity,  the  paramount 
Influence,  which  the  Japanese  exercise  over  its  welfare, 
restricting  foreign  trade  to  those  articles  which  cannot 
be  Imported  from  Japan.  Business  has  just  doubled  in 
six  years ;  but  the  increase  in  the  import  trade  is  not  In 
favour  of  British  goods.  The  Imposition  of  the  tariff, 
which  prevails  In  European  Russia,  at  Vladivostock,  ac- 
counted for  the  general  advance  in  foreign  Imports  at 

171 


KOREA 

Won-san  during  1901.  In  the  following  year,  1902,  the 
imports  were  again  heavier  than  the  exports,  the  figures 
being:  Imports,  £191,535,  and  exports,  £102,205.  The 
local  government  of  the  port  is  conducted  upon  Japanese 
lines.  The  streets  are  broad,  well  gravelled,  and 
fringed  with  an  irregular  border  of  trees.  After  the 
foul  and  narrow  lanes  of  the  Korean  town,  through 
which  it  is  necessary  to  pick  one's  way  before  entering 
the  settlement,  their  appearance  is  cheerful  and  at- 
tractive. 

Won-san,  the  native  town  which  has  given  its  name 
to  the  port,  is  two  miles  from  the  heart  of  the  settle- 
ment, and  comprises  a  quaint  medley  of  thatched  and 
tiled  houses,  crow^ded  together  in  narrow  and  noisome 
alleys.  The  main  road  from  Seoul  to  the  frontier,  one 
of  the  six  great  roads  of  the  country,  lies  through  the 
centre  of  the  town.  The  clusters  of  hovels,  upon  both 
sides  of  this  excellent  highway,  suggest  that  the  eligible 
sites  are  only  those  which  abut  upon  this  spacious  thor- 
oughfare. Glimpses  of  the  bay  are  visible  through  gaps 
in  the  houses.  The  smell  of  the  sea  is  lost  in  the  fumes 
of  drying  fish  and  decaying  garbage,  which  hang  heav- 
ily in  the  atmosphere,  impregnating  everything  and 
penetrating  everywhere,  save  to  the  wind-swept  heights 
which  encircle  the  bay.  A  population  of  15,000  hud- 
dles in  these  groups  of  thatched  shops  and  tumble-down 
houses. 

The  native  town  ceases  abruptly  about  a  mile  from 
the  settlement.     Fields  of  vegetables  border  the  road. 

172 


WON-SAN 

The  strip  of  beach  upon  which  the  town  is  placed, 
is  black  with  patches  of  fish  spread  to  the  sun,  Httered 
with  fishing  nets,  and  encumbered  with  crazy  fishing- 
boats  and  junks.  After  a  Httle  it  disappears  around 
cliffs,  whose  crests  are  fragrant  with  pine  and  fir  trees. 
Tortuous  valleys,  giving  glimpses  of  prosperous  villages 
set  in  their  midst  against  a  background  of  majestic  peaks 
and  ridges  of  hills,  well-timbered  headlands  and  promon- 
tories upon  which  are  set  the  houses  of  the  missionaries, 
combine,  with  the  broad  waters  of  the  bay  and  the  vista 
of  the  open  sea  beyond,  to  form  a  series  of  picturesque 
and  supremely  attractive  views.  There  are  nearly 
three  thousand  Japa;iese  in  residence  at  Won-san,  a  few 
Chinese  merchants,  and  a  small  foreign  community,  in- 
cluding the  Commissioner  of  Customs  and  Mrs.  Wake- 
field, and  the  Customs  staff.  The  rest  are  evangelists  of 
no  great  Importance. 

The  climate  of  Won-san  Is  dry  and  healthy.  The 
heat  Is  tempered  by  sea  breezes  and  the  nights  are  cool. 
The  mean  temperature  for  the  summer  Is  seventy-three 
degrees,  and  for  the  winter  twenty-nine  degrees;  the 
rainfall  is  forty-four  inches,  a  little  greater  than  that 
upon  the  west  coast.  Snow  falls  to  a  depth  of  four  feet, 
covering  the  mountains  from  October  until  May.  The 
port  Is,  however,  rather  cooler  than  Chemulpo  In  sum- 
mer and  a  little  warmer  in  winter,  the  dryness  of  the 
atmosphere  considerably  modifying  the  cold.  The 
splendour  of  an  autumn  sky  continues  throughout  the 
winter,  when  the  principal  shooting  Is  to  be  obtained. 

173 


KOREA 

Much  historical  interest  attaches  to  many  of  the  more 
beautiful  spots  In  the  vicinity.  From  this  neighbour- 
hood sprang  the  kings  of  Ancient  Ko-ryo ;  and  again,  it 
gave  birth  to  the  reigning  house  of  Cho-syon,  for,  in  the 
monastery  of  Sok-wan,  twenty-two  miles  distant,  A  Tai- 
cho,  the  first  king  of  the  present  dynasty,  was  educated 
and  lived.  The  monastery  itself,  with  its  temples,  was 
erected  by  the  King  to  mark  the  spot  where,  509  years 
ago,  he  received  that  supernatural  summons  to  rule,  in 
virtue  of  which  his  descendants  now  occupy  the  throne. 
In  the  seclusion  of  this  beautiful  spot,  the  early  years  of 
A  Tai-cho  were  passed  In  meditation, study,  and  prepara- 
tion for  his  future  kingship.  Many  of  the  magnificent 
trees,  which  embower  the  temples  and  rise  in  stately  dig- 
nity from  the  grand  mountain  clefts.  In  which  the  monas- 
tery Is  situated,  are  reputed  to  have  been  planted  by  his 
hands.  In  a  building  apart,  into  which  no  one  is  allowed 
to  enter,  save  the  monk  in  whose  keeping  the  relics  are 
placed,  his  regalia  and  robes  of  State  are  preserved  to 
this  day. 

Won-san  Is  situated  in  the  southern  corner  of  the 
province  of  Ham-kyong.  A  considerable  portion  of  Its 
trade  is  carried  on  with  the  closely  adjoining  divisions 
of  Pyong-an  and  Kang-won,  the  three  provinces  form- 
ing the  northern  half  of  the  kingdom;  their  population 
Is  variously  estimated  at  between  three  and  five  millions. 
Mountains  predominate  in  these  districts.  A  bewilder- 
ing tangle  of  wooded  hills  and  bleak  peaks  meets  the 
eye,  jumbling  and  jostling  one  another  in  every  dlrec- 


FUSAN 

tion  until  nothing  is  seen  but  broken  mountains  and 
ridges  cleft  Into  a  thousand  little  valleys.  More  espe- 
cially Is  this  the  case  in  Ham-kyong  and  Kang-won;  in 
Pyong-an  the  valleys  broaden  out  and  the  hills  become 
lower  and  less  frequent,  giving  place  to  the  Ta-dong 
River,  and  many  wide  spaces  for  agricultural  purposes. 
Among  these  broken  ranges  In  the  neighbourhood  of 
Won-san,  and  towards  the  interior,  there  is  much  sport. 
Sable,  ermine,  and  otter  are  trapped  in  Northern  Ham- 
kyong  ;  tigers,  leopards,  bears,  wolves  and  foxes  are  rare 
in  fact,  plentiful  In  fiction.  Wild  boar,  deer  and  hares 
are  not  uncommon;  pheasants  are  less  numerous  than 
formerly.  Snipe  appear  in  August,  duck  in  September, 
geese  and  wild  fowl  in  the  winter  on  the  marshes  and 
lagoons.  There  is  much  game  upon  the  land,  and  there 
is  much  sport  In  the  sea.  Whales,  shark,  seal,  salmon, 
and  innumerable  small  species  wait  to  be  caught,  the 
products  of  sea  and  land  combining  to  make  the  place  a 
sportsman's  paradise. 

The  approach  to  the  treaty  port  of  Fusan  is  through 
a  bay  strewn  with  green  islands  and  encompassed  by 
high  cliffs.  A  narrow  path,  skirting  the  shore  and  run- 
ning over  the  cliffs,  leads  presently  to  Old  Fusan,  a 
walled  city  of  great  antiquity,  situated  at  the  end  of  a 
stretch  of  ten  miles  of  sea,  which  forms  one  of  the  arms 
of  the  bay.  New  Fusan  Is  like  every  other  Korean 
treaty  port.  The  smells  of  the  Japanese  settlement  were 
worse,  however,  very  much  worse,  as  I  well  remember, 
than  any  which  rose  from  the  sewers  and  slimy  alleys 

175 


KOREA 

of  the  old  town.  Old  Fusan  stands  alone,  at  the  head 
of  the  bay,  looking  down  from  its  ruined  and  crumbling 
walls  across  the  waste  of  water,  musing  in  decrepit  isola- 
tion upon  departed  glories.  New  Fusan,  the  foreign 
quarter,  is  very  noisy,  very  dirty,  and  uncomfortable. 
The  Japanese  shopkeepers  make  little  attempt  to  pro- 
vide for  other  aliens;  the  wretched  hotel  demurs  at  re- 
ceiving them.  The  place  is  thoroughly  Japanese,  pros- 
perous, active,  and  enduring.  It  is  the  focus  of  the 
tumble-down  steamers  which  run  between  the  ports  of 
Korea  and  Japan,  venturing  even  to  Taku,  Port  Arthur 
and  Vladivostock.  Upon  all  sides  there  is  the  appear- 
ance of  industry  and  trade,  inseparable  from  any  Japa- 
nese community.  In  conjunction  with  the  Seoul-Fusan 
Railway  a  vast  scheme  of  harbour  reclamation  is  in 
progress.  This  will  provide  suitable  sites  for  godowns,  in 
which  the  port  is  sadly  deficient.  The  making  of  roads, 
the  installation  of  electric  light,  and  the  construction  of 
large  waterworks  are  the  objects  which  have  already  re- 
ceived the  attention  of  the  Japanese  authorities.  There 
is  a  Japanese  Consul-General  in  Fusan,  who  administers 
Japanese  law  to  some  fourteen  thousand  of  his  fellow 
countrymen.  Half  of  this  number  is  comprised  in  the 
floating  population,  whose  sole  business  is  fishing.  The 
valuable  fisheries  lying  off  the  coast  and  in  the  adjacent 
archipelago  return  an  annual  yield  of  ten  million  herring 
and  half  a  million  cod.  Altogether,  the  bustle  and  con- 
fusion of  the  place  supports  its  claim  to  be  the  most  im- 
portant of  the  treaty  ports  of  Korea,  in  spite  of  the 

176 


MOK-PO 

neglect  with  which  British  merchants  treat  it.  The 
actual  Japanese  population  of  the  Fusan  settlement  in 
1 90 1  was  seven  thousand  and  fourteen,  an  increase  of 
more  than  one  thousand  upon  the  returns  of  the  previous 
year — six  thousand  and  four.  Since  then  there  has  been 
a  further  increase,  and  the  population  at  the  present 
time  falls  httle  short  of  nine  thousand. 

The  activity  of  the  Japanese  in  the  open  ports  of 
Korea  does  not  correspond  in  any  way  to  the  size  of  the 
port.  Whatever  may  be  the  local  conditions,  there  Is  no 
falling-off  in  their  untiring  enterprise.  If  the  port  has 
been  established  ten  or  twenty  years,  or  only  one,  their 
commercial  vigour  is  the  same.  After  the  settlements  of 
Won-san,  Fusan,  and  Chemulpo,  a  visit  to  the  port  of 
Mok-po,  declared  open  in  the  autumn  of  1897,  fails  to 
elicit  much  which  is  new  or  important.  Mok-po  Is  very 
small.  To  those  who  are  interested  in  the  subject.  It 
gives  an  excellent  example  of  the  cool,  resolute  manner 
in  which  the  Japanese  build  up  a  very  flourishing  settle- 
ment upon  the  foundations  of  an  unprepossessing  native 
village.  The  pioneers  of  the  ports  In  Korea,  it  is  natu- 
ral that  they  should  select  the  best  available  sites  for 
their  own  quarter.  At  Mok-po,  repeating  a  system 
which  was  adopted  in  the  case  of  Fusan,  Won-san,  and 
Chemulpo,  the  Japanese  settlement  commands  the  one 
situation  which  Is  adaptable  for  commercial  purposes. 
The  approaches  to  Mok-po  lie  through  a  network  of 
Island  and  rock-strewn  channels,  the  largest  of  which  Is 
some  six  hundred  yards  wide.    The  harbour  Is  the  em- 

177 


KOREA 

bouchure  of  the  River  Ru-yong-san,  the  main  water-way 
of  the  province,  some  ninety  miles  long.  It  can  accom- 
modate forty  vessels  of  large  tonnage.  The  best  pas- 
sage is  through  Lyne  Sound,  but  easy  access  is  given, 
from  the  south,  by  Washington  Gulf.  The  width  of  the 
harbour  is  a  little  less  than  two  miles,  with  a  depth  at 
low  water  of  eleven  fathoms,  rising  to  nineteen  on  a 
full  tide.  At  ebb  tide  the  current  averages  five  knots  an 
hour;  during  the  spring  tides  this  velocity  increases, 
adding  to  the  disadvantages  offered  by  an  indifferent 
holding-ground. 

Mok-po  is  situated  in  the  south-western  corner  of  the 
Province  of  Chyol-la,  sometimes  called  the  granary  of 
Korea.  The  port  takes  its  name  from  a  large  island, 
which  faces  it  on  the  north,  and  forms  the  entrance  to 
the  river.  It  is  picturesque  and  stands  sufficiently  high 
to  break  the  monotony  of  the  surrounding  country. 
Rough  and  barren  to  look  upon,  It  possesses  the  nucleus 
of  what  will  become  an  important  settlement  as  trade 
increases.  The  buildings  of  the  Japanese  Consulate  and 
the  Customs  House  are  the  most  Imposing  structures  at 
present  In  the  place.  The  British  Consulate,  a  mass  of 
rock,  unadorned,  bluff,  bare  and  bleak.  Is  the  most  deso- 
late and  depressing.  A  vista  of  mud  flats  does  not  add 
to  the  beauty  of  this  spot.  A  well-built  sea-wall,  behind 
which  some  acres  of  marshy  shore  have  been  reclaimed, 
indicates  the  spirit  In  which  the  Japanese  set  to  work  to 
improve  their  concessions. 

A  composite  trade  centres  at  Mok-po,  exceeding  one 

178 


LOCAL    INDUSTRIES 

hundred  thousand  pounds  in  value.  Foreign  Imports 
stand  for  quite  eighty  thousand  of  this  total.  It  Is,  per- 
haps, needless  to  add  that  no  British  shipping  has  en- 
tered the  harbour  within  the  six  years  of  Its  existence. 
German  and  American  steamers  have  nevertheless 
brought  cargoes  to  Mok-po;  Japanese  steamers  touch 
regularly.  The  trade  Is  that  of  a  native  market,  whose 
demands  can  be  furnished  from  Japan;  It  Is,  of  course, 
beneath  the  notice  of  the  British  exporter.  Piece  goods, 
Japanese  and  American  cigarettes,  matches,  yarn,  arti- 
cles which  the  humbler  classes  now  use  and  for  which, 
owing  to  the  rapidly  Increasing  native  population  of  this 
south-western  Province,  there  will  be  greater  demand  In 
the  future,  make  up  the  trade. 

It  may  be  that  this  port,  despised  by  the  British  mer- 
chant, as  are  all  the  ports  of  Korea,  will  some  day  head 
the  centres  of  commerce  of  the  kingdom.  Even  now  It 
attracts  foreign  goods  from  Japan,  America,  and  Ger- 
many. There  are  many  channels  through  which  British 
wares,  cheap,  enduring,  practical  and  suitable  to  prevail- 
ing conditions,  could  filter  to  the  advantage  of  the  British 
merchant.  Cereals  are  raised  in  large  quantities,  straw- 
matting,  grass-cloth,  paper  and  fans  are  the  other  native 
manufactures.  A  vein  of  bituminous  coal  has  been 
struck  within  a  short  distance  of  the  port.  In  two  indus- 
tries— the  making  of  paper  and  the  weaving  of  grass- 
cloth — there  are  opportunities  for  expansion,  which 
any  enterprising  and  Intelligent  agent  could  promote  by 
Introducing  cheap  chemicals  and  inexpensive  mechanical 

179 


KOREA 


appliances.  In  the  paper-making  trade  alone  there  Is  a 
rich  harvest  to  be  garnered  by  the  firm  who  will  choose 
to  devote  time,  energy  and  patience  to  the  creation  of  a 
business  in  alkalies.  Already  the  basis  of  a  remunera- 
tive connection  exists  among  the  villages  devoted  to  this 
labour. 


1 80 


CHAPTER   XV 

Treaty    Ports    (^continued) — Wi-ju — Syon-chyon-po — Chin-am-po^ 
Pyong-yang — Kun-san — Syong-chin 

THE  ports  which  remain  to  be  mentioned,  have  not 
yet  attained  a  commercial  Importance  entitling 
them  to  any  great  consideration.  They  afford,  how- 
ever, a  signal  Illustration  of  the  enterprising  spirit  in 
which  the  Koreans  have  met  the  demands  made  upon 
them,  and,  as  the  interests  of  the  country  Increase,  the 
natural  expansion  of  the  Inland  trade  will  enhance  their 
value. 

Hitherto,  Southern  Korea  has  been  better  served  in 
the  matter  of  open  ports  than  the  northern  half  of  the 
kingdom.  With  the  addition  to  the  list  of  treaty  ports 
of  Syong-chin,  upon  the  north-eastern  coast,  and  Chln- 
am-po  (with  Pyong-yang,  an  old-time  capital  of  Korea, 
and  ranking  to-day  as  the  third  city  of  the  Empire,  in 
close  proximity),  upon  the  western  coast,  greater  facil- 
ities have  been  accorded  to  the  commercial  development 
of  the  almost  unknown  markets  of  Northern  Korea. 
In  view,  however,  of  the  trade  in  the  southern  provinces 
of  the  kingdom,  the  port  of  Kun-san  was  created  on  the 
west  coast  simultaneously  with  the  opening  of  Syong- 
chin  in  1899  upon  the  north-east  shore.    This  port  lies 

181 


KOREA 

between  Chemulpo  and  Mok-po,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Keum  River,  the  natural  boundary  between  the  two 
provinces,  Chyol-la  and  Chyung-Chyong. 

It  Is,  nevertheless,  to  the  north  and  north-east  regions 
that  foreign  commerce  must  look  for  that  Impetus  to 
Industrial  activity,  which  comes  from  the  opening  of 
new  markets.  A  most  Important  trade-centre  already 
exists  In  WI-ju,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Yalu  River.  This 
town  requires  to  be  opened;  In  the  meantime.  Its  posi- 
tion upon  the  border  of  Manchuria  attracts  a  varied 
and  valuable  direct  trade.  Moreover,  If  WI-ju  were 
brought  under  the  administration  and  control  of  the 
Maritime  Customs  of  Korea,  and  Included  among  those 
ports  which  have  already  been  declared,  a  greater  re- 
straint could  be  put  upon  the  smugglers,  who  have  made 
It  a  centre  of  communication  In  their  Illicit  trade.  At 
this  moment  It  Is  difficult  to  say  whether  WI-ju  may  be 
quite  properly  Included  among  the  treaty  ports.  If  offi- 
cial assurances  can  be  safely  accepted,  the  Government 
of  Korea  decided  on  August  22nd,  1903,  to  declare 
WI-ju  an  open  port,  at  the  same  time  placing  a  Customs 
house  at  Yong-an-po.  The  difference  between  the  two 
Is  hardly  greater  than  that  separating  Pyong-yang  from 
Chln-am-po.  Unfortunately,  this  decision  is  by  no 
means  definite,  although  a  few  days  later,  on  September 
4th,  an  announcement  to  the  same  effect  was  made  by 
the  Foreign  Office  at  Seoul  to  the  foreign  representa- 
tives. This  official  ratification  of  its  previous  decision 
would  carry  conviction  if  the  policy  of  the  Korean  Cabl- 

182 


WI-JU 

net  were  less  vacillating,  and  the  opposition  of  the  Rus- 
sian Minister  less  strenuous.  The  Russian  Minister 
objects  in  an  equal  degree  to  the  opening  of  Yong-an-po, 
and,  since  M.  Colin  de  Plancy,  the  French  Minister,  is 
supporting  his  Russian  colleague,  M.  Pavloff,  in  opposi- 
tion to  the  opening  of  Wi-ju,  future  developments  may 
prove  M.  Pavloff  to  have  withdrawn  his  objections 
against  Wi-ju  in  order  that  he  can  concentrate  them 
upon  Yong-an-po.  Unfortunately  for  Russian  interests, 
British  policy  in  Korea  favours  the  opening  of  both 
ports,  an  action  in  which  Mr.  Jordan,  the  British  Min- 
ister in  Seoul,  is  cordially  supported  by  many  of  his  col- 
leagues. 

The  action  of  the  British  Government  In  respect  of 
these  ports  on  the  Yalu  is  quite  encouraging,  and  it  is 
equally  satisfactory  to  see  that  Mr.  Jordan  has  main- 
tained his  attitude  with  admirable  consistency.  The  de- 
mand of  the  British  Government  was  presented  to  his 
Majesty  at  a  special  audience  on  July  14th,  1903.  It 
evoked  at  once  the  opposition  of  the  Russians,  whose 
objections  were  communicated  officially  to  the  Korean 
Government  when,  a  few  days  later,  the  British  Minis- 
ter sent  a  despatch  to  the  Foreign  Office  to  inquire  upon 
what  date  Wi-ju  would  become  an  open  port.  Mean- 
while, the  Japanese  Minister  reiterated  the  request  of 
the  British  Government,  which,  at  the  same  time,  was 
supported  by  an  Identical  demand  from  the  Chinese  For- 
eign Office,  through  the  Korean  Minister  In  Pekln.  For 
a  few  days  matters  remained  stationary,  the  situation 

183 


KOREA 

becoming  a  little  involved  by  the  resignation  of  the  Min- 
ister of  Foreign  Affairs,  Yi  To-chai,  upon  the  plea  of  ill- 
health.  The  Emperor  refused  the  resignation,  and  on 
August  9th  the  British  Minister  sent  an  urgent  despatch, 
which  demanded  the  opening  of  Wi-ju  within  seven 
days.  A  few  days  later  a  decision,  favourable  to  the 
request  of  the  British  Minister,  was  delivered,  and  it  re- 
mains to  be  seen  whether  permanent  effect  will  be  given 
to  it.  Meanwhile,  as  the  readiest  means  of  giving  effect 
to  the  new  dignity  of  the  port,  a  small  posse  of  Japan- 
ese police  has  been  sent  to  Wi-ju  to  protect  the  settle- 
ment. 

Syon-chyon-po,  the  youngest  of  the  open  ports,  is  in 
its  very  early  days.  It  is  situated  about  forty  miles  to 
the  south  of  Wi-ju.  Its  future  prosperity  is  uncertain, 
but  from  its  position,  midway  between  Chin-am-po  and 
Wi-ju,  it  should  become  an  important  port  of  call  for 
native  shipping.  At  present  Syon-chyon-po  is  adminis- 
tered from  Chin-am-po,  but  the  lines  of  its  future  settle- 
ment have  been  planned,  and  it  will  doubtless  develop 
into  a  thriving  Japanese  colony.  For  the  moment  there 
is  little  trade. 

The  Ta-dong  River,  at  the  estuary  of  which  Chin-am- 
po  lies,  is  one  of  the  most  important  and  picturesque 
streams  in  the  country.  It  drains  the  southern  and 
south-eastern  divisions  of  Pyong-an  Province;  upon  its 
banks,  sixty-seven  miles  from  the  sea,  is  Pyong-yang,  the 
early  capital  and  oldest  city  of  the  Empire.  Around 
Pyong-yang  still  lingers  a  host  of  romantic  associations, 

184 


SYON-CHYON-PO 

historical  and  legendary.  Towns  and  villages  are  found 
upon  the  banks  of  the  Ta-dong;  there  is  much  rugged 
beauty  in  the  scenery,  and  the  water-shed  has  landmarks 
of  great  physical  and  historical  importance.  The  veloc- 
ity of  the  river  current  during  the  spring  tides  averages 
three  and  a  quarter  knots.  During  the  ebb,  over  against 
the  Chin-am-po  bank,  there  Is  an  Increase  of  two  knots 
caused  by  a  projecting  point  upon  the  opposite  shore  of 
the  river.  The  formation  of  the  Ta-dong  inlet  is  Irregu- 
lar; many  indentations,  which  mark  the  outline  of  the 
anchorage,  become  mud  flats  at  low  water.  Prior  to  the 
selection  of  Chin-am-po  as  a  treaty  port,  the  native  vil- 
lage consisted  of  a  few  straggling  huts  and  a  population 
of  less  than  one  thousand.  Now,  however,  the  old 
order  has  given  way  to  the  new.  The  mud  flats  have 
been  reclaimed  and  so  many  Improvements  have  taken 
place  in  the  general  conditions  of  the  port  that  a  bright 
future  may  be  confidently  predicted  for  it. 

Chln-am-po,  the  settlement,  is  situated  upon  the 
northern  shore  of  the  Ta-dong  inlet,  about  fifteen  miles 
from  its  entrance  in  the  extreme  south-west  of  Pyong- 
an  Province.  The  port  was  opened  to  foreign  trade  in 
October,  1897.  During  the  few  years  of  its  existence  as 
an  open  port,  Chin-am-po  has  made  no  little  progress. 
At  the  present  time  It  gives  promise  of  becoming  an 
exceedingly  Important  commercial  centre.  The  Increase 
of  the  foreign  trade  and  the  flourishing  condition  of  the 
native  market  have  attracted  the  attention  of  the  Japa- 
nese, who  have  already  made  a  considerable  settlement 

i8s 


KOREA 

in  the  port.  Estimates  of  the  native  population  vary 
from  fifteen  to  forty  thousand,  the  smaller  figure  being 
nearer  the  mark.  The  trade  compares  favourably,  In 
point  of  value  and  bulk,  with  that  of  ports  of  equal 
capacity,  similarly  situated.  Its  development  is  some- 
what restricted,  the  two  great  forces  contributing  to  its 
material  economy  being  the  Impetus  which  has  been 
given  to  local  agricultural  resources,  and  the  mining  in- 
dustry. When  the  concessions  of  the  American  and 
British  Mining  Companies  at  Un-san  and  Eun-san  were 
granted,  Chin-am-po  became  the  port  of  shipment  for 
much  of  their  traflic. 

The  commercial  possibilities  of  the  region,  which  lies 
between  the  Ta-dong  River  and  the  water-shed  of  the 
Yalu,  are  In  the  earliest  stages  of  development.  Much 
might  be  predicted  of  the  returns  which  these  new  fields 
would  yield  to  intelligent  exploitation.  Cut  off  from  the 
eastern  division  of  the  kingdom  by  ranges  of  mountains, 
and  extending  from  Po-reup-san,  near  Chln-am-po,  In 
the  south,  to  the  mountain  fastnesses  of  the  northern 
frontiers  of  the  Empire,  Is  a  stretch  of  country  in  part 
uninhabited.  It  Is  frequented  by  bands  of  Korean  rob- 
bers and  Chinese  bandits;  the  centre  of  much  native  min- 
ing and  the  scene  of  perpetual  border  warfare.  The 
haunt  of  the  wild  beast,  barren  and  almost  Impenetrable, 
it  is  practically  untouched  by  Western  civilisation.  Its 
groves  of  pines  and  firs,  and  acres  of  woods,  recall  the 
time  when  Northern  Korea  was  one  vast  forest.  Until 
quite  lately  there  were  but  two  open  ports  for  the  service 

i86 


PYONG-YANG 

of  this  region,  Chln-am-po  and  Pyong-yang.  The  third, 
Syon-chyon-po,  in  Its  northern  extremity,  Is  still  closed 
to  Europeans.  Gold  and  coal,  iron  and  copper,  are 
among  its  natural  resources.  The  soil  Is  productive; 
and  the  moment  is  ripe  for  the  initiation  of  industrial 
enterprises.  Moreover,  commercial  prosperity  would  in- 
troduce a  more  pacific  note  Into  the  condition  of  these 
lone  lands. 

Pyong-yang  lies  upon  the  borders  of  an  extensive  an- 
thracite and  bituminous  coal  district.  The  outcroppings 
are  plainly  traceable,  although  at  present  not  indicative 
of  any  very  serviceable  quality  of  fuel.  Coal,  however, 
is  not  the  least  of  the  minerals,  nor  are  the  resources  of 
the  soil  confined  to  the  production  of  beans.  Stone 
quarrying  and  the  timber  industry  flourish  in  the  prov- 
ince. The  authentic  records  of  Pyong-yang  go  back 
some  three  thousand  years,  the  creation  of  the  city  coin- 
ciding with  that  of  the  Kingdom  of  Israel.  Saul,  David, 
and  Solomon  were  the  contemporaries  of  Ki-ja  and  his 
successors.  In  more  modern  times  the  most  stirring 
events  recorded  are  the  massacre  of  the  crew  of  the 
General  Sherman^  in  1866,  and  the  long  chapter  of 
vicissitudes  which  befell  the  city  during  the  Chlno-Japa- 
nese  campaign.  The  ravages  of  war  and  the  devastation 
of  pestilence  in  1895  ^^^^  a  deserted  and  ruined  city. 
Nevertheless,  as  if  to  remind  the  Inhabitants  of  the  for- 
mer dignity  of  their  town,  the  tide  of  its  fortunes 
turned,  and  some  measure  of  prosperity  returned.  In 
the  Interval,  trade  revived;  a  small  foreign  community 

187 


KOREA 

now  lives  within  the  walls,  and  it  Is  hoped  that  the  days 
of  evil  omen  are  as  distant  as  are  the  times  when  this 
old-world  capital  first  enclosed  herself  within  protecting 
walls.  Commercially  and  Industrially  It  has  advanced 
enormously;  and,  as  a  sign  of  the  times,  may  be  men- 
tioned the  fact  that  the  native  community  has  founded 
a  private  English  Language  school.  Pyong-yang  is  as- 
sociated so  Intimately  with  Chin-am-po  that  the  two 
are  Inseparably  united  in  any  survey  of  the  fortunes  of 
either.  Nevertheless,  the  continuation  of  Pyong-yang 
as  an  open  port  Is  uncertain,  the  Korean  Government 
having  expressed  the  Intention  of  closing  the  port  If  they 
are  compelled  to  throw  open  Wi-ju.  The  British, 
American  and  Japanese  representatives  have  resolutely 
opposed  this  suggestion. 

The  port  of  Kun-san,  which  was  thrown  open  in  May, 
1899,  to  foreign  settlement  and  general  trade,  taps  chan- 
nels in  the  main  identical  with  those  which  supply 
Mok-po.  Depending  to  a  great  extent  upon  the  agri- 
cultural resources  of  the  provinces  of  Chyol-la  and 
Chyung-chyong,  its  trade  is  confined  to  the  exportation 
of  cereals,  such  as  rice,  wheat,  and  beans;  of  grass-cloth, 
paper,  and  bamboo  articles;  and  of  varieties  of  fish  and 
seaweed.  When  the  railway  between  Seoul  and  Fusan 
Is  completed,  the  development  of  the  agricultural  re- 
sources of  these  areas  will  re-act  upon  the  fortunes  of 
this  port.  It  is,  however,  quietly  thriving  in  the  inter- 
val, content  to  play  a  prominent  role  in  the  coast  trade 
rather  than  to  figure  as  a  port  of  call,  in  any  exchange 

188 


KUN-SAN 

of  commodities  with  China  and  Japan.  In  early  days, 
the  port  itself  was  well  known  as  the  export  station  for 
revenue  rice,  when  the  Government  revenues  were  paid 
in  grain.  The  practice  has  not  been  maintained  in  more 
recent  years.  In  Kun-san  there  is  an  increasing  colony 
of  Japanese,  a  large  native  population,  and  a  small  Chi- 
nese community.  The  import  trade,  however,  is  con- 
fined to  Japanese  manufactures,  including,  broadly, 
those  counterfeits  of  foreign  goods — Manchester  shirt- 
ings, Chinese  lawns,  Indian  yams,  American  kerosene 
and  English  and  Swedish  matches — in  the  production  of 
which  our  lively  imitators  have  attained  an  unusual 
standard  of  perfection. 

The  most  isolated  of  all  the  open  ports  is  Syong-chin, 
upon  the  north-eastern  coast,  in  the  province  of  Ham- 
kyong,  about  one  hundred  and  twenty  miles  from  Won- 
san.  It  was  opened  in  May  1899;  the  trade,  princi- 
pally with  Won-san,  and  carried  on  by  Japanese,  is 
unimportant.  There  is  a  field  for  expansion,  as  gold, 
copper,  and  coal  exist  within  a  short  distance  of  the  town. 
There  are  also  white  granite  quarries  in  the  neighbour- 
hood. The  off-shore  sea-fishing  supports  a  colony  of 
Japanese;  large  numbers  of  cattle  are  raised  for  the 
market  in  the  province,  and  the  country  around  is  under 
cultivation  for  beans.  The  export  trade  is  in  beans, 
hides,  and  fish;  the  imports  include  kerosene,  matches, 
and  cotton  goods.  There  is  no  direct  native  trade  with 
Japan.  The  present  condition  of  Syong-chin  suggests 
that  it  was  once  a  fortified  town  of  importance.    There 

189 


KOREA 

are  the  ruins  of  a  high  protecting  wall,  surmounted  with 
watch-towers  and  battlements.  Time,  poverty  and 
neglect  are  responsible  for  Its  present  Impoverished  con- 
dition. There  is  a  small  native  population.  The  an- 
chorage is  little  more  than  an  open  roadstead.  It  Is  easy 
of  access,  deep,  and  has  an  excellent  holding.  Vessels 
drawing  ten  feet  can  lie  within  a  short  distance  of  the 
shores.  Fogs  and  high  winds  prevail  In  spring,  but, 
upon  the  whole,  the  climate  is  more  temperate  at  all 
seasons  than  Won-san. 

The  port  lies  near  the  41st  parallel,  facing  nearly 
north-east,  midway  between  Won-san  and  Vladlvostock. 
The  prevailing  wind,  winter  and  summer,  blow^s  from 
the  south-west.  It  is  only  In  times  of  atmospheric  dis- 
turbance, an  Infrequent  condition  in  these  latitudes,  that 
a  north-east  blow  renders  the  anchorage  unsafe,  and 
compels  vessels  to  shift  their  moorings  to  the  north- 
east end  of  the  bay,  where  the  Sarako  headland  gives 
them  shelter.  Water  to  the  depth  of  five  fathoms  ob- 
tains within  200  yards  of  the  shore.  The  rise  and  fall 
of  spring  tides  is  about  two  feet.  No  obstacles  present 
themselves  to  the  building  of  a  landing-stage  and  boat 
harbour.  When  the  port  was  opened,  a  few  huts  repre- 
sented the  native  town.  Since  then  about  250  houses 
have  been  erected,  and  more  are  being  built.  At  no  dis- 
tant date  It  Is  probable  that  Syong-chin  will  displace  the 
neighbouring  Im-myong  as  the  market  place.  The  for- 
eign community  is  represented  by  a  Japanese  Consul  and 
staff,  Japanese  pohce  force  and  postal  staff,  schoolmas- 

190 


SYONG-CHIN 

ter,  shipping  agent  and  workmen.  A  British  doctor 
and  his  family,  belonging  to  the  Canadian  Mission,  re- 
side there.  The  only  foreign  house  erected  within 
the  settlement  limits  Is  that  occupied  by  the  Japanese 
Consul. 


191 


CHAPTER   XVI 

Russian  interest — Russia  and  Japan — Ma-san-po — Ching-kai- 
wan — Yong-an-po 

RUSSIAN  industrial  activity  in  Korea  may  be  re- 
garded as  a  cloak  for  political  schemes.  Since 
the  time  that  the  Emperor  became  the  protected  guest 
of  the  Russian  Legation,  the  influence  of  Russia  in 
Korea  has  been  more  definite  in  quality.  Assisted  by 
French  capital,  a  Russian  company  has  started  recently 
a  cattle  ranch  and  sheep-run  at  A-ya-chin,  on  the  coast 
of  Kang-won  Province,  with  a  view  to  the  establish- 
ment of  a  canning  factory,  which  is  now  in  process  of 
construction.  In  addition  to  this,  she  has  set  up  a  glass 
factory  at  Seoul,  a  proceeding  which  throws  no  light 
upon  her  motives.  She  has  promoted  the  Pacific  Whale 
Fishing  Company,  which,  plying  its  trade  off  the  coast 
of  Korea,  collects  very  valuable  information  of  unsur- 
veyed  bays  and  unsounded  anchorages,  water-holes, 
coal-deposits,  and  currents — and  occasionally  catches  a 
whale.  It  possesses  twelve  vessels.  Russia  controls  no 
railway  line  in  Korea,  although  she  is  interested  in  the 
line  which  the  French  are  building;  no  gold  mine,  but 
a  geographical  exploration  party  of  naval  officers  has 

192 


RUSSIAN    INTERESTS 

been  topographically  examining  the  region  of  the  Yalu 
River  for  some  years.  She  has  been  accorded  certain 
rights  in  Ma-san-po;  she  is  endeavouring  to  secure  the 
concession  of  a  site  suitable  for  a  naval  station,  and 
through  virtue  of  a  lumber  felling  concession  on  the 
Yalu,  she  has  located  herself  at  Yong-an-po.  In  May 
1903,  too,  a  commercial  commission  travelled  from 
Seoul  to  Wi-ju,  overland. 

As  rapidly  as  circumstances  permit,  Russia  is  con- 
necting her  Manchurian  telegraphic  system  with  the 
trunk  lines  of  Korea,  and  telegraphic  communication  is 
in  course  of  construction  between  Mukden  and  Wi-ju, 
Vladivostock  and  Won-san.  The  action  of  Russia  in 
this  respect  has  encountered  very  great  opposition  from 
Korea.  When  the  Korean  Cabinet  declined  to  grant 
permission  for  the  erection  of  the  poles,  for  which  the 
Russian  engineers  had  not  waited,  M.  Pavloff,  the 
Russian  Minister,  delicately  hinted  that  the  removal 
of  the  poles  would  be  regarded  as  an  unfriendly  act,  and 
one  liable  to  create  unpleasantness  between  the  two 
Governments.  The  Korean  Government,  however, 
were  not  frightened  into  drawing  back,  and  for  some 
months  past  the  local  officials  have  been  occupied  in 
cutting  down  whatever  poles  the  Russians  might  erect. 
Russia,  also,  proposes  to  rebuild  the  telegraph  line  from 
Pekin  to  Seoul  via  Wi-ju,  while  further,  it  is  her  avowed 
intention  to  construct  from  Mukden  a  branch  of  her 
railway  to  An-tung  on  the  Yalu  River. 

Russia  has  been  associated,  also,  with  the  Korean 

193 


KOREA 

army,  the  Russian  military  authorities  having  lent  a 
number  of  drill-Instructors  to  the  Korean  service.  They 
have  now  been  withdrawn.  The  management  of  the 
residence,  in  which  apartments  are  found  for  the  guests 
of  the  Imperial  Court,  has  been  entrusted  to  a  Russian 
lady.  There  are  very  few  Russian  residents  in  Seoul. 
Those  who  live  there  comprise  the  immediate  personnel 
of  the  Legation,  the  Legation  guards,  priests  of  the 
Greek  Church,  and  some  sprinkling  of  the  shop-keep- 
ing element.  The  colony  Is  small,  but  contrives,  with 
the  aid  of  a  port  guardship  at  Chemulpo  and  constant 
visits  from  the  Pacific  Squadron,  when  performances 
are  given  by  the  band  from  the  guard-ship  for  the 
delectation  of  the  Imperial  Court,  to  support  the  maj- 
esty and  dignity  of  the  Russian  Government  with  much 
impressive  display.  Proposals  have  been  recently  made 
to  establish  consulates  in  the  open  ports  of  the  Empire 
— the  Consulate  from  the  capital  is  now  established  at 
Chemulpo;  to  increase  the  services  of  the  steamers  of 
the  Manchurlan  Railway  between  the  open  ports  of 
Korea  and  Manchuria,  and  to  found  a  branch  of  the 
Russo-Chlnese  Bank  at  Chemulpo.  It  is  Intended,  too, 
that  the  Russian  Pacific  Squadron  shall  use  the  Korean 
harbours  more  frequently  as  ports  of  call. 

For  some  years  Russia  has  been  gradually  feeling 
her  way  In  Korea.  Prior  to  1885  there  were  over 
twenty  thousand  Koreans  settled  in  her  Far  Eastern 
possessions,  while  In  1888  Russia  concluded  a  Commer- 
cial Convention  with  Korea,  which  opened  the  Korean 

194 


RUSSIA   AND   JAPAN 

land  frontier  to  Russian  traders.  In  1893  telegraphic 
communication  between  Russia  and  Korea  was  ar- 
ranged, when,  just  as  the  Russian  policy  towards  Korea 
perhaps  was  beginning  to  shape  Itself,  war  between 
China  and  Japan  was  declared.  Whatever  conclusions 
may  have  been  anticipated  as  the  results  of  such  a  war, 
there  can  be  no  doubt  that  Its  effect  upon  the  actual 
destinies  of  Russia  and  Japan  In  the  Far  East  was  far- 
reaching.  The  policy  of  Russia  towards  China  under- 
went a  change,  while  the  ultimate  possession  of  Korea 
became  equally  the  objective  of  Japan  as  of  the  greater 
Power.  Russia,  however,  could  not  afford  to  profit  at 
the  moment  by  the  downfall  of  China,  and  Japan  was 
not  strong  enough  to  hold  the  Llao-tung  Peninsula  nor 
bold  enough  to  seize  Korea.  Nevertheless,  driven  out 
of  the  Llao-tung  by  the  action  of  Russia,  France  and 
Germany,  Japan  might  still  have  secured  for  herself 
complete  material  and  political  ascendency  over  Korea. 
In  time.  If  such  had  been  her  policy,  she  could  have 
made  manifest,  too,  her  occupation  of  the  kingdom 
and  equipped  herself  with  an  argument,  the  parallel 
of  that  possessed  by  Great  Britain  In  Egypt,  and  by 
Russia  In  Manchuria.  Unhappily,  while  Russia  with 
masterly  deliberation  was  moving  steadily  forward  In 
her  subjugation  of  Manchuria,  Japan,  whole-hearted 
but  Ignorant  of  the  pitfalls  of  colonial  expansion,  was 
creating  endless  difficulties  for  herself  In  Korea,  besides 
serious  complications  with  the  Powers  outside  the 
scenes  of  her  activities.     Before  she  had  realised  the 

195 


KOREA 

potentialities  of  her  position,  she  had  committed  her- 
self to  a  design  by  which  she  hoped  to  secure  the  King 
and  Queen  and  to  direct  herself  the  reins  of  govern- 
ment. But  her  coup  d'etat  was  to  recoil  disastrously, 
and  at  once,  upon  her  own  head.  The  Queen  fell  a 
victim  to  the  plot,  and  although  the  King  was  im- 
prisoned, he,  together  with  the  Crown  Prince,  contrived 
In  a  little  time  to  find  refuge  in  the  Russian  Legation. 
The  escape  of  the  King  only  emphasised  the  failure  of 
Japan,  and  despite  her  subsequent  treaties  with  Russia, 
in  respect  of  Korea,  the  balance  of  power  in  the  Far 
East  as  between  Russia  and  Japan  has  never  quite  re- 
covered from  the  blow  which  Japan  administered  her- 
self to  her  own  prestige  upon  this  occasion. 

Japan  still  wields  material  influence  of  a  high  order 
in  Korea.  But,  within  the  paramount  position  which 
she  fills,  there  is  the  rift  caused  by  the  spread  of  the 
antagonistic  and  insidious  influence  of  her  great  oppo- 
nent. Curiously  enough,  the  position  which  Russia  holds 
to-day  is  not  nearly  as  assertive  as  that  which  she  oc- 
cupied in  1896,  yet  there  Is  little  doubt  that  her  influ- 
ence is  more  commanding,  if  less  conspicuously  aggres- 
sive. Japan  has  turned  aside  upon  occasion  from  the 
political  issues  to  develop  her  commercial  interests. 
Russia,  again,  has  pursued  unswerving  the  policy  which 
revealed  with  the  fall  of  China  the  fact  that  Man- 
churia was  within  her  grasp  and  that  Korea  was  Its 
entail. 

The  action  of  Russia  upon  the  Yalu  River  at  the 

196 


RUSSIA   AND   JAPAN 

present  time,  her  action  In  respect  of  Won-san  In  the 
past,  are  each  animated  by  this  motiv.  Russia  regards 
Korea  as  the  completion  of  her  dominions  In  the  Far 
East,  while  Japan  looks  upon  the  little  kingdom  as  the 
corollary  to  that  expansion  which  is  essential  to  the 
existence  of  the  Island  Empire.  Russia  In  Manchuria 
and  Korea,  with  her  shadow  projected  over  China, 
would  mean  a  sentence  of  perpetual  restriction  and 
shrinkage  for  Japan.  But,  similarly,  Russia  from  her 
position  at  Vladivostock  and  Port  Arthur  must  regard 
the  occupation  of  Korea  by  Japan  as  a  wedge  with  Its 
point  projected  towards  the  centre  of  her  Manchurian 
communications.  Just  as,  therefore,  the  fear  of  a  Rus- 
sian descent  upon  Korea  has  excited  Japan,  the  necessity 
for  such  action  has  brought  the  crisis  in  the  relations 
between  Japan  and  Russia  so  perceptibly  nearer. 
Private  agreements  and  secret  overtures  have  paved  the 
way  for  the  denouement  which  long  since  was  disclosed. 
When  Russia  endeavoured  to  requisition  the  harbour 
of  Ma-san-po  for  the  requirements  of  her  Pacific 
Squadron,  an  indication  was  afforded  that  Russian 
activity  in  Korea  would  be  concealed  no  longer.  Ma- 
san-po  has  since  become  an  open  port,  the  Government 
of  Japan  at  once  formulating  ingenious  objections  to 
the  Russian  scheme  at  the  same  time  that  they  threat- 
ened the  Government  of  Korea  with  threats  of  imme- 
diate reprisals.  But  prior  to  the  conditions  laid  down 
by  Russia  in  the  Ma-san-po  Convention  of  1900  wit]i 
the  Korean  Government,  this  magnificent  harbour  had 

197 


KOREA 

already  attracted  the  attention  of  the  Japanese  and 
Chinese  settlers.  By  force  of  circumstances,  therefore, 
the  place  became  an  open  port,  the  local  authorities  be- 
ing powerless  to  check  the  Influx  of  foreigners  and  the 
creation  of  a  foreign  zone  around  the  harbour.  That 
M.  Pavloff,  the  clever  Russian  diplomatic  representa- 
tive in  Seoul,  succeeded  In  bringing  about  any  agree- 
ment at  all  is  remarkable,  taking  Into  account  the  panic- 
stricken  state  to  which  the  Imperial  Government  was 
reduced  by  Japanese  Intimidation.  The  secret  conven- 
tion between  the  Russian  and  Korean  Governments,  en- 
tered Into  during  1900,  preserved  the  independence  of 
the  harbour,  and  failing  to  confirm  Russia  in  the  definite 
occupation  of  Ma-san-po,  provided  that  none  of  the 
land  about  Ma-san-po  harbour  or  its  approaches  should 
be  permanently  ceded  or  sold  to  any  foreign  Power. 
The  same  conditions  applied  to  the  island  of  Keu-chai, 
situated  In  the  mouth  of  the  harbour.  This  curtailment 
of  the  ambitions  of  Russian  policy,  In  this  particular 
direction,  due,  of  course,  to  the  energetic  action  of 
Japan,  did  not  make  the  position  of  Russia  in  Ma-san- 
po  in  any  sense  secure.  Japan,  even  then  upon  the  eve 
of  her  declaration,  would  have  gone  to  war  with  Russia, 
if  that  Power  had  attempted  to  maintain  an  isolated 
and  complete  domination  of  this  harbour  and  its  ap- 
proaches against  her  wishes. 

There  is  nothing  in  the  present  condition  of  Ma-san- 
po  which  suggests  that  it  may  become  a  centre  of  Rus- 
sian influence  in  Southern  Korea.     The  Japanese  de- 

198 


MA-SAN-PO 

manded,  even  before  the  Incident  had  quite  blown  over, 
a  large  tract  of  land  at  Ma-san-po  for  the  purposes  of 
making  a  settlement  there.  In  addition  to  this,  the 
quarter,  marked  off  for  foreign  settlements,  has  been 
almost  wholly  appropriated  by  the  Japanese,  who  have 
erected  shops  and  houses  of  some  importance  to  the 
extent  of  several  hundred,  upon  the  more  suitable  sites. 
Japanese  postal  and  telegraphic  offices  have  been  opened 
in  Ma-san-po,  and  an  uncomfortable  hostelry  disturbs 
the  rest  of  the  weary.  A  large  permanent  staff  of 
Japanese  police  has  been  detached  for  duty  in  Ma-san- 
po,  and  the  next  feature  in  the  development  of  affairs 
will  be  the  detailing  of  a  port  guardship  and  the  usual 
infantry  garrison  to  protect  the  Japanese  settlement. 
These  acts  imply  a  permanent  lease  and  constitute  the 
methods  by  which  the  Japanese  propose  to  Invalidate 
the  Russo-Korean  Convention.  The  aim  of  Japanese 
policy  In  Ma-san-po  is  to  discount  as  far  as  possible  the 
rights  of  the  Russians,  and  to  deprive  their  existence  In 
the  harbour  of  any  special  significance.  The  Russians 
accept  the  position  with  extreme  philosophy  and  Indif- 
ference. If  they  wished  to  do  so,  they  might  raise  pro- 
test after  protest  against  the  Intrusive  character  of 
Japanese  action  in  the  areas  affected  by  the  clauses  of 
the  Agreement  of  1900. 

Twelve  months  ago  the  foreign  population  of  Ma- 
san-po  consisted  of  two  hundred  and  thirty  Japanese, 
forty-one  Chinese,  eighteen  Russians,  and  two  Ger- 
mans.   These  figures  Include  male  and  female  heads  of 

199 


KOREA 

population,  but  no  children.  The  actual  strength  of 
the  Russian  colony  in  this  harbour  was  eight  men,  ten 
women,  three  children;  of  the  Japanese  only  seventy- 
eight  were  females.  There  is  little  import  and  export 
traffic.  The  nearness  of  Fusan,  which  is  only  six  hours 
distant,  makes  it  unnecessary  to  trade  direct  with  the 
settlement.  Japanese  steamers  from  Fusan  call  daily, 
local  produce  being  brought  round  by  native  junks. 
There  is  a  large  fishing  industry  off  the  harbour;  it  is, 
however,  quite  controlled  by  Japanese  fishermen  from 
Fusan.  The  principal  industry  on  shore  is  the  con- 
struction of  the  settlement,  some  little  agriculture,  and 
no  little  gossip. 

Since  the  failure  of  her  efforts  to  secure  Ma-san-po, 
Russia  has  endeavoured  to  obtain  the  lease  of  Ching- 
kai-wan,  sometimes  called  Chin-hai  or  Shin-hai,  a  bay 
situated  in  the  extreme  south  of  the  Korean  peninsula, 
as  a  naval  station.  The  position  of  this  harbour  is  ex- 
actly midway  between  Vladivostock  and  Port  Arthur. 
Owing  to  its  geographical  situation,  the  presence  of 
Russia  in  sole  possession  of  Ching-kai-wan  would  be 
certain  to  give  rise  to  even  greater  demonstrations  of 
hostility  from  the  people  and  Government  of  Japan 
than  did  the  Ma-san-po  incident.  Nam-pu,  which  it 
was  then  Russia's  object  to  secure,  is  about  twenty  miles 
outside  the  limits  of  the  treaty  port  of  Ma-san-po. 
While  the  Japanese  Government  could  not  prevent 
Russia  from  obtaining  a  coaling-station  for  the  Russian 
Steamship    Company    within    the    boundaries    of    the 

200 


YONG-AN-PO 

foreign  settlement  of  Ma-san-po,  she  most  strenuously 
protested  against  a  grant  of  land  for  Russian  naval  pur- 
poses twenty  miles  away.  Japan  likewise  resists  the 
establishment  of  a  Russian  naval  depot  at  Ching-kai- 
wan,  where  there  is  no  treaty  port,  and  to  which,  were 
the  "  lease  "  confirmed,  only  Russia  would  have  a  right 
of  access. 

Ching-kai-wan  is  within  a  few  hours'  steam  of  that 
Port  Hamilton  which  Great  Britain  was  induced  to  re- 
linquish, upon  the  understanding  between  Russia  and 
China  that  Russia  would  not  seek  to  acquire  territory 
in  Korea.  The  excuse,  since  put  forward  by  Russia  for 
the  flagrant  violation  of  this  compact,  is  that  it  was  a 
bargain  made  with  China,  and  not  with  us.  There  is 
another,  and  still  more  extraordinary  feature  in  con- 
nection with  this  affair,  which  Li  Hung  Chang  confided 
to  a  diplomatic  representative  of  a  foreign  Power,  at  Pe- 
kin,  some  years  ago.  The  Chinese  statesman  admitted 
that  the  contract  between  China  and  Russia  contained 
a  private  stipulation  that  it  should  be  good  for  ten  years 
only.  In  other  words.  Great  Britain  was  led  to  with- 
draw from  Port  Hamilton  on  the  pretence  that  Russia 
would  never  trespass  on  Korean  soil,  although  there 
was  a  secret  understanding  between  China  and  Russia 
at  the  time,  that  this  arrangement  should  only  be  in 
force  for  one  decade. 

Although  the  position  of  affairs  in  regard  to  the 
action  of  Russia  at  Yong-an-po  is  of  recent  prominence, 
the  question  goes  back  in  reality  to  the  autumn  of  1896, 

201 


KOREA 

when  a  Russian  merchant  in  Vladivostock,  M.  Briin- 
ner  by  name,  obtained  from  the  Korean  Government 
the  right  of  felling  lumber  and  planting  trees  on  the 
banks  of  the  Yalu  and  Tumen  Rivers,  as  well  as  on  the 
island  of  Ul-lyang,  for  twenty  years.  The  concession 
was  to  be  forfeited  unless  work  was  begun  in  five  years. 
As  the  close  of  the  period  drew  near,  the  Russian  agent 
in  Seoul  applied  for  an  extension  of  three  years.  At 
the  moment  it  was  reported  in  Seoul  that  this  request  of 
M.  Pavloff  had  been  refused,  but  it  transpired  subse- 
quently that  an  agreement  had  been  drawn  up  to  the 
following  effect  between  the  superintendent,  appointed 
by  the  Korean  Government  to  oversee  the  matters,  and 
the  inspector  in  charge  of  the  interests  of  the  company 
in  Yong-an-po : 

1.  The  said  district  in  Yong-an-po  shall  be  rented  to 
the  Russian  company. 

2.  The  boundaries  of  the  said  district  shall  be  de- 
fined by  the  Russian  Minister  and  the  Minister  in  charge 
of  the  Foreign  Office  of  the  Korean  Government. 

3.  The  Russian  company  shall  pay  a  land-tax  to  the 
Korean  Government. 

4.  If  the  owners  of  tombs  within  this  district  wish  to 
remove  them,  the  expense  of  removal  shall  be  borne  by 
the  Russian  company. 

5.  If  the  company  wish  to  utilise  wood  which 
Koreans  have  cut  and  are  bringing  down  the  river,  it 
must  reimburse  the  owners  with  a  fair  and  proper 
price. 

202 


YONG-AN-PO 

6.  The  Russian  company  shall  not  raise  any  stock 
within  this  district  except  what  is  to  be  used  therein. 

7.  Korean  offenders  within  this  district  shall  be  dealt 
with  by  the  Korean  courts.  Russian  offenders  shall  be 
dealt  with  by  Russian  civil  officers. 

These  contracts  were  signed  on  July  20th,  1903,  by 
the  Korean  official  Cho  Sung-hyup  and  the  Russian  In- 
spector Bojisco. 

Meanwhile,  however,  in  May  1903,  prior  to  the  de- 
cision of  the  Korean  Government  in  the  matter,  the  pre- 
fect of  Wi-ju  reported  the  concentration  of  Russian 
troops  at  An-tung  for  the  purpose  of  crossing  the  Yalu. 
A  few  days  later,  a  detached  party  of  forty  of  these 
men  crossed  the  stream,  halting  on  a  small  Island  In  mid- 
river  to  discard  their  uniforms,  so  that  they  might  enter 
Yong-an-po  In  private  clothes.  From  Yong-an-po  they 
moved  to  Yong-chyon,  near  Wi-ju,  where,  accompanied 
by  one  hundred  Chinese  and  eighty  Koreans,  they 
founded  a  lumber  settlement,  buying  seventeen  houses, 
with  twelve  acres  of  land  attached.  In  the  name  of  two 
of  their  Korean  employes.  The  presence  of  the  colony 
was  at  once  objected  to  by  the  Korean  Government,  who 
threatened  M.  Pavloff  with  the  rupture  of  relations  If 
the  settlement  were  not  at  once  withdrawn.  M.  Pav- 
loff, however,  defended  the  existence  of  the  lumber 
camp  under  powers  obtained  from  the  Forest  Conces- 
sion of  1896,  which,  in  actuality,  had  not  been  re- 
affirmed at  the  moment.  Early  In  the  next  month,  June, 
the  magistrate  at  Yong-chyon  reported  that  another 

203 


KOREA 

party  of  Russians  had  arrived  at  Yong-an-po,  including 
in  all  three  Russian  women,  thirty-six  men,  two  hundred 
Chinese,  and  many  horses.  These  were  reinforced  in 
July  by  three  women  and  sixty  men,  for  the  most  part 
carrying  rifles  and  swords,  and  who,  also,  at  once 
bought  houses  and  land. 

The  action  of  these  people  has  assumed  a  specific 
direction.  A  few,  as  though  anxious  to  give  colour  to 
their  existence  as  a  lumber  settlement  and  in  defiance 
of  orders  from  the  Korean  local  officials,  while  quite 
exceeding  the  clauses  of  the  concession  proper,  persisted 
in  felling  trees  on  the  areas  of  a  prohibited  reserve. 
Meantime  the  remainder  of  the  party,  by  no  means  idle, 
began  the  construction  of  a  bund  on  the  Yalu  extending 
over  a  distance  of  twenty-one  miles,  a  light  railway  be- 
ing laid  down  for  the  purpose.  In  addition  to  this  work 
developments  of  a  more  permanent  character  were  taken 
in  hand;  stone  buildings  appeared,  a  factory  was  con- 
structed, and  extensive  defensive  measures  adopted. 
To  confirm  these  indications  of  Russian  occupation  of 
the  Yalu  reaches,  a  body  of  seventy  soldiers  crossed  the 
river  at  Cho-san,  a  second  party  of  eighty  men  coming 
over  at  Pyok-tong.  The  Russians  then  proceeded  to 
bring  these  various  scattered  "  lumber  "  settlements  into 
communication,  for  this  purpose  erecting  a  telegraph 
line  between  Wi-ju  and  Yong-an-po.  This  line,  how- 
ever, the  Koreans  at  once  cut  down,  whereupon  the  Rus- 
sians began  to  lay  a  submarine  cable  from  Yong-an-po 
round  the  coast  and  up  the  Yalu  River  to  An-tung  in 

204 


YONG-AN-PO 

place  of  the  line  across  country  from  Yong-an-po  to 
Manchuria.  Since  the  cable  projects  were  important 
and,  together  with  the  settlement  at  Yong-an-po,  much 
in  need  of  protection,  Russia  proposed  to  draft  a  force 
of  three  hundred  soldiers  into  the  place.  At  this  date, 
towards  the  end  of  August,  the  settlement  at  Yong-an- 
po  had  grown  into  sixty  houses  with  a  civil  Russian 
population  of  seventy  citizens.  By  this  time,  however, 
the  Japanese  Minister  at  Seoul,  Mr.  Hayashi,  had  re- 
ceived the  text  of  the  proposed  contract  between  the 
Korean  Government  and  the  Russian  Lumber  Com- 
pany. Thereupon,  on  August  25  th,  he  delivered  an  ul- 
timatum to  the  Korean  Government.  On  the  same  day 
the  Russian  Minister  went  to  the  Foreign  Office  and 
urged  that  the  lease  of  Yong-an-po  be  granted.  In  spite 
of  his  urgent  appeal,  the  Minister  declared  it  to  be  im- 
possible. On  the  27th  the  Russian  Minister  went  again 
to  the  Foreign  Office  at  noon,  and  remained  till  seven 
in  the  evening,  but  the  Minister  was  ill  and  did  not  put 
in  an  appearance.  The  Russian  Minister  then  stated 
that  he  would  have  nothing  more  to  do  with  the  For- 
eign Minister,  but  would  appeal  directly  to  the  Em- 
peror. In  his  despatch  Mr.  Hayashi  wrote  that  if  the 
Korean  Government  were  to  sign  such  a  lease  with  the 
Russian  Government,  Japan  would  consider  such  an  act 
as  a  direct  violation  of  the  treaty  between  herself  and 
Korea.  In  this  event  Japan  would  consider  that  diplo- 
matic relations  between  the  two  countries  were  sus- 
pended, and  she  would  regard  herself  free  to  act  for 

205 


KOREA 

herself  In  her  own  interests  on  the  assumption  that  the 
whole  of  the  Korean  territories  had  been  opened  to  the 
world. 

The  spirited  action  of  the  Japanese  Minister  was  not 
lost  upon  the  Korean  Government,  who  at  once  Issued 
orders  to  the  prefect  of  Yong-an-po  to  restrain  the  Rus- 
sians from  further  encroachment.  The  efforts  of  the 
local  officials  were,  however,  of  little  avail,  and  by  the 
middle  of  September,  In  addition  to  the  colony  at  Yong- 
an-po,  the  settlement  at  Yong-chyon  had  Increased  to 
one  hundred  and  twenty-eight  Chinese  huts,  with  thir- 
teen hundred  Chinese,  seventy  Russians,  and  twenty 
tents.  Complaints  of  the  high-handed  action  of  the 
Russians  in  appropriating  the  property  of  the  Koreans 
to  their  own  needs  began  to  arrive  In  Seoul,  and  on  Sep- 
tember 13th  came  the  information  that  a  telegraph  line 
had  again  been  laid  between  Yong-an-po  and  the  lum- 
ber concession  on  the  Yalu.  Coupled  with  the  intelli- 
gence of  this  renewed  activity  was  additional,  and  much 
more  disquieting,  information.  The  Russians  had  con- 
structed on  the  elevated  ground  about  the  Tu-ryu  Har- 
bour a  high  watch-tower,  and  were  preparing  emplace- 
ments for  three  batteries  of  field  artillery.  Meanwhile, 
however,  as  a  counter  demonstration  to  the  movement 
of  a  company  of  five  hundred  Russians  under  two 
officers,  on  October  23rd,  who  had  crossed  the  Tumen 
River  Into  Korean  territory  by  night,  a  Japanese  war- 
ship dropped  anchor  in  the  estuary  of  the  Yalu,  in  close 
proximity  to  Yong-an-po. 

206 


YONG-AN-PO 

I  make  no  apology  to  my  readers  for  giving  in  this 
detailed  fashion  the  history  of  this  little  Russian  con- 
cession. As  a  chapter  of  contemporary  history  I  can- 
not think  that  my  words  are  of  any  value,  but  there  are 
doubtless  many  who,  like  myself,  prefer  to  begin  in  the 
beginning,  and  so  slowly  trace  through  the  develop- 
ments of  any  question.  In  respect  of  Russian  action  on 
the  Yalu,  therefore,  I  have  endeavoured  to  do  this. 

Note. — An-tung  is  known  also  as  Sha-bo;  the  Yalu  River  is 
known  also  as  the  Am-nok  River. 


207 


CHAPTER   XVII 

By  the  wayside — A  journey  inland  to  Tong-ko-kai — inland 

beauties 

THE  world  of  politics  in  Seoul  had  become  of  a 
sudden  so  profoundly  dull,  that,  ignoring  the 
advice  of  the  weather-wise  inhabitants  of  the  capital,  I 
packed  my  kit,  and  hiring  ponies,  interpreters  and  ser- 
vants, moved  from  the  chief  walled  city  of  the  Empire 
into  the  wild  regions  of  the  interior.  My  journey  lay 
towards  Tong-ko-kai,  the  German  mines,  several  days' 
journey  from  Seoul.  Life,  in  the  capital,  is  not  desti- 
tute of  that  monotony  which  characterises  the  Land  of 
the  Morning  Radiance.  But  beyond  the  precincts 
of  the  Imperial  Palaces,  out  of  sight  and  hearing  of 
the  countless  little  coteries  of  Europeans,  the  contrast 
between  the  moving,  soft-robed,  gentle  masses  of  peo- 
ple who  congregate  within  her  gates,  and  the  mountain 
reaches  and  valleys  of  the  open  country  is  refreshing. 
For  the  moment  the  pleasure  of  such  an  experience  ranks 
high  among  the  joys  which  life  holds. 

Save  in  the  first  few  li  from  the  capital,  we  aban- 
doned the  beaten  tracks,  travelling  along  quiet  byways 
and  mountain  paths,  turning  aside  at  fancy  to  climb  a 
peak  or  to  take  a  swim  In  the  cool,  deep  waters  of  some 

208 


INLAND    BEAUTIES 

secluded  pool  at  night,  and  morning,  and  at  our  noon- 
day halt.  In  the  pleasant  shades  of  these  cool  moun- 
tains and  sunlit  valleys  the  people  live  In  unrebuked 
simplicity.  They  offered  the  loan  of  charcoal  stoves  or 
retailed  eggs,  chickens  and  rice  to  my  servants.  At  the 
moment  of  my  bath,  youths  and  youngsters  gambolled 
with  me  In  the  stream.  It  Is  said  that  the  Koreans  are 
far  from  clean,  a  statement  they  belled  upon  many  occa- 
sions by  the  freedom  and  enjoyment  with  which  they 
Indulged  In  these  dips.  Foreigners  had  not  penetrated 
along  the  route  which  my  friend  and  I  were  following  to 
the  German  mines,  and  even  the  ubiquitous  evangelist 
had  not  penetrated  to  these  peasant  homes.  The  moun- 
tains and  rivers  had  no  names;  the  settlements  were 
small;  inns  did  not  exist.  Everywhere  was  content- 
ment, peace,  and  infinite  repose.  Nature  stood  revealed 
to  us  in  primaeval  grandeur,  and  It  was  Impossible  not 
to  enjoy  the  calm  of  the  valleys,  the  rugged  beauty  of 
the  mountain  crests,  the  picturesque  wildness  of  the 
scenery. 

As  the  days  passed  the  general  character  of  the  coun- 
try remained  unaltered.  The  manifold  and  complex 
tints  In  the  bush,  the  differing  aspects  of  each  succeeding 
height,  the  alternating  complexion  of  the  valleys,  dissi- 
pated the  monotony,  engendered  by  the  never  changing 
features  of  the  picture — the  trees  and  mountains,  hill- 
side hamlets  and  mountain  torrents,  precipitous  passes 
and  windy  plateaux.  Moving  thus  slowly  through  the 
mountain  passes,   a  wonderful  panorama  silently  dls- 

209 


KOREA 

closed  Itself.  Hills  were  piled  one  upon  another,  grad- 
ually merging  into  chains  of  mountains,  the  crests  of 
which,  two  and  three  thousand  feet  In  height,  stood  out 
clearly  defined  against  an  azure  sky,  their  rock-bound 
faces  covered  with  birch,  beech,  oak  and  pine.  The 
valleys  below  these  mountain  chains  were  long  and  nar- 
row, cool  and  cultivated.  A  hillside  torrent  dashed 
through  them,  tumbling  noisily  over  massive  boulders, 
gradually  fretting  a  new  course  for  itself  in  the  lava 
strata.  Countless  insects  buzzed  in  the  still  air;  frogs 
croaked  in  the  marsh  meadows;  the  impudent  magpie 
and  the  plebeian  crow  choked  and  chattered  indignantly 
among  the  branches  of  the  trees.  Cock-pheasants 
started  from  the  thick  cover  of  the  low-lying  hills,  the 
dogs  pointed  the  nests  of  the  sitting  hens,  and  does 
called  to  their  calves  among  the  young  bushes.  A  calm 
and  happy  nature  revealed  itself  spontaneously  in  these 
fragrant  places,  undisturbed,  luxurious,  and  unre- 
strained. The  road  was  rough.  Here  and  there,  in 
keeping  with  the  wild  and  rugged  beauty  of  the  scene, 
it  became  the  narrow  track  of  the  Australasian 
"  backs,"  congested  with  bushes,  broken  by  holes  and 
stones,  almost  impassable  until  the  coolies  made  a  way. 
Across  the  clattering  crystal  of  the  gushing  torrent  a 
rustic  bridge  was  flung,  the  merest  makeshift,  three  feet 
in  width,  with  a  flooring  of  earth  and  bush,  which  bent 
and  swayed  upon  slender  poles,  beneath  the  slightest 
burden.  Some  streams  were  unbrldged,  and  the  diminu- 
tive ponies  splashed  through  them,  gladly  cooling  their 

2IO 


INLAND    BEAUTIES 

sweating  flanks  as  their  drivers  waded  or  carried  one 
another  to  the  distant  bank.  Wild  ferns,  butterflies, 
and  flowers  revelled  in  these  unkempt  gardens.  The 
red  dog-lily  and  purple  iris  glowed  against  the  foliage 
of  the  shrubs  and  bushes.  Gigantic  butterflies  eclipsed 
the  glories  of  the  rainbow;  their  gorgeous  tints  blend- 
ing into  harmony  with  the  more  subdued  plumage  of  the 
cranes  and  storks  that  floated  lazily  across  the  inundated 
spaces  of  the  paddy-fields.  Other  birds,  with  dove-grey, 
pink,  or  yellow  breasts  and  black  pinions,  fished  in  the 
streams  with  raucous  cries.  The  most  amazing  tints, 
recalling  some  of  Turner's  later  pictures,  gladdened  the 
eye  in  these  delightful  valleys.  In  the  depths  of  the 
valleys  the  mountain  torrents  flowed  more  idly,  and  the 
stream  meandered  in  a  thousand  directions.  Upon 
either  bank,  Its  volume  was  diverted  to  the  needs  of 
some  adjacent  rice-field.  In  these  paddy-patches  green 
and  tender  shoots  were  just  sprouting  above  a  few 
inches  of  clear  water.  Here  and  there,  fields  of  wheat 
bordered  these  water-soaked  stretches;  oats,  corn,  bar- 
ley, tobacco,  cotton,  beans  and  millet  were  scattered 
about  the  sides  and  plains  of  the  mountain  valleys  in  a 
fashion  which  proclaimed  the  fertility  of  the  soil. 

Everything  throve,  however,  and  the  Industry  of  the 
workers  In  the  fields  was  manifested  at  every  turn  of  the 
road.  Their  Ingenuity  In  making  the  most  of  available 
land  recalled  the  valleys  which  run  down  to  the  fiords 
of  Norway,  where,  as  In  Korea,  patches  of  cultivated 
ground  are  visible  at  the  snow  level.     Here,  In  these 

211 


KOREA 

beautiful  valleys,  perhaps  a  thousand  or  fifteen  hundred 
feet  up  the  mountain  side,  acres  of  golden  crops  will  be 
growing  In  the  warm  and  happy  seclusion  of  some  shel- 
tered hollow. 

At  the  turn  of  the  winding  track,  bordered  by  the 
paddy-fields  or  acres  of  golden  barley,  oats  and  tobacco, 
lies  a  village.  It  is  but  a  cluster  of  some  dozen  straw- 
thatched  hovels,  dirty  and  unprepossessing,  but  infinitely 
quaint  and  picturesque.  The  walls  of  the  houses  are 
crumbling  and  stayed  up  with  beams  and  massive  tim- 
bers; the  latticed  windows  are  papered,  the  doorways 
low.  A  hole  in  the  wall  serves  the  purposes  of  a  chim- 
ney; a  dog  is  sleeping  in  the  porch;  a  pig  squeaks, 
secured  with  a  cord  through  the  ears  to  a  peg  In  the 
wall.  Cocks  and  hens  are  anywhere  and  everywhere, 
the  family  latrine — an  open  trough,  foul  and  nauseous, 
used  without  disgust  by  all  members  of  the  family  save 
the  older  women-folk,  stands  upon  the  verandah.  Some- 
where, near  the  outer  limits  of  the  small  settlement, 
an  erection  of  poles  and  straw  matting  distinguishes  the 
village  cesspool,  the  contents  of  which  are  spread  over 
the  fields  In  the  proper  season. 

A  glimpse  Into  a  house,  as  one  rides  through  the  vil- 
lage shows  a  man  combing  his  long  hair,  a  woman  beat- 
ing her  husband^s  clothes  or  ironing  with  a  bowl  heated 
with  charcoal;  many  naked  children,  the  progeny  of 
child-wives,  scarce  out  of  their  teens.  For  the  moment 
the  village  seems  devoid  of  life.  As  the  clatter  of  the 
cavalcade  resounds,  a  child,  feeding  Itself  from  a  basin 

212 


INLAND    BEAUTIES 

of  rice,  emerges  from  a  window;  a  man  tumbles  to  his 
feet  yawning  noisily.  Women,  with  infants  hanging 
at  their  breasts  or  bearing  children  strapped  to  their 
backs  in  dirty  clothes,  the  usual  naked  band  of  well- 
developed  breast  and  unwashed  back  showing,  crowd 
into  the  streets.  All  eye  the  newcomers  with  indifferent 
curiosity,  until  we  wish  them  a  plenteous  rain — "  May 
the  rain  come  soon,  good  people."  Then  they  bend 
their  heads  respectfully  at  the  salutation,  and  Instantly 
become  bright  and  smiling.  Winsome  kiddies,  muddy 
and  naked,  offer  us  flowers,  and  bowls  of  water  from 
the  streams  upon  which  their  elders  have  settled. 

As  the  road  threaded  through  the  mountains,  long 
valleys,  widely  and  richly  cultivated,  the  yellow  lustre 
of  the  golden  crops  blazing  In  the  sunlight,  lay  below. 
Granite  peaks  towered  upwards,  their  rugged  faces 
scored  by  time  and  tempest,  their  ragged  outlines 
screened  with  firs  and  birch.  The  still  air  was  laden 
with  the  aromatic  scent  of  the  pine-woods;  the  sky  was 
clear  and  blue.  In  the  distance,  snow-white  clouds  hung 
in  diaphanous  festoons  about  a  curve  In  the  mountains. 
The  rough  contour  broke  where  the  heights  were  bleak- 
est and  most  barren.  A  twist  In  the  broad  valley  which 
our  road  traversed  limited  the  prospect,  but  the  direc- 
tion lay  beneath  the  shadows  of  those  distant  peaks,  and 
the  perspective  already  compensated  for  the  precipitous 
climb. 

Indeed,  from  a  few  //  beyond  Chyok-syong,  a  magis- 
tracy of  the  fourth  class,  where  the  houses  are  roofed 

213 


KOREA 

with  thick  slabs  of  slate  supported  by  heavy  beams, 
where  the  streets  are  clean,  and  where  road  and  river 
alike  make  a  detour^  the  views  by  the  wayside  became 
increasingly  impressive.  For  mile  upon  mile  we  saw 
no  wayfarers.  The  villages  were  widely  distant ;  fertile 
valleys  gave  place  to  green-black  gorges,  without  culti- 
vation, peaceful,  grandly  beautiful,  and  uninhabitable. 
The  perfect  stillness  and  the  wonderful  magnificence  of 
the  panorama  held  one  spell-bound.  There  was  no 
change  in  the  character  of  the  scenery  until,  riding 
slowly  forward,  the  road  dropped  from  the  comfortable 
shade  of  a  mountain  temple  into  the  blazing  sunshine  of 
the  plain.  Pushing  forward,  the  rice  and  cornfields  re- 
ceded, giving  place  to  the  ranges,  whose  lofty  peaks, 
dressed  with  their  mantling  clouds,  had  been  already 
dimly  discerned.  Throughout  the  journey  of  the  next 
two  days  the  road  rose  and  fell,  winding  in  a  steady 
gradient  across  the  mountain  sides. 

The  march  to  Tong-ko-kai  was  laborious,  and  one 
day,  when  within  easy  distance  of  the  concession  in  a 
tiny  hamlet,  the  colour  of  the  slate  and  granite  boulders, 
nestling  among  waving  bushes,  almost  unconscious  of  the 
outer  world  and  hardly  alive  to  its  own  existence,  an 
ideal  spot  in  which  to  pitch  the  evening  camp  was  found. 
It  was  early  in  the  afternoon,  but  the  road  ahead  looked 
rough  and  stony.  Our  horses  were  fatigued,  the  ford 
had  been  troublesome  and  we  were  wet,  cold  and  hun- 
gry. Within  the  bush  the  shadows  were  deepening. 
No  one  knew  the  site  of  the  next  village  nor  the  pre- 

21.4 


INLAND    BEAUTIES 

else  direction  In  which  we  were  moving,  so  we  halted. 
That  night  we  snuggled  down  with  our  faces  to  the 
cliffs.  Our  horses  were  tethered  in  a  patch  of  corn,  and 
the  kit,  the  servants,  interpreters  and  grooms  lay  in  one 
confused  and  hungry  tangle  round  us.  Within  sound  of 
the  deep  roar  of  the  river  we  slept  peacefully.  Indeed, 
I  am  not  certain  that  this  one  hour  when,  invigorated 
by  a  swim  in  some  mountain  pool,  refreshed  by  a  slight 
repast,  we  rocked  in  our  camp  beds,  smoking  and  chat- 
ting, looking  into  the  cool  black  depths  of  the  canopy 
above  us,  was  not  the  best  that  the  day  held.  There 
was  something  intensely  restful  in  those  long,  silent 
watches.  The  mighty  stillness  of  the  surrounding 
heights  of  Itself  gave  a  repose,  to  which  the  night  winds, 
the  murmurs  of  the  nmning  water  and  our  own  physical 
fatigue,  Insensibly  added.  It  was  pleasant  to  hear  the 
ponies  eating;  to  watch  the  stars  come  out,  the  moon 
rise;  to  listen  to  the  bull- frog  In  the  water  weeds  and 
the  echoes  of  the  song  of  a  peasant,  rising  and  falling 
among  the  peaks  of  the  high  mountains,  until,  at  length, 
all  sounds  had  passed  away  and  the  great  world  around 
us,  above  us,  and  below,  lay  at  peace. 


215 


CHAPTER   XVIII 

The  German  mines — Mineralogy  and  methods  of  mining — 
A  bear  hunt — With  gun  and  rifle 

NATURE  has  been  active  in  these  regions.  There 
is  much  limestone  and  slate  formation,  some 
basaltic  upheavals,  lava  boulders,  and  chain  upon  chain 
of  granite  peaks.  To  the  west  of  Tong-ko-kai  there 
is  the  crater  of  an  extinct  volcano,  but  the  lava  strata  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  concession  are  almost  completely 
eroded.  The  basin  of  the  concession  is  well  watered, 
cultivated,  and  populous  in  places.  It  is  surrounded  by 
ranges  three,  four  and  five  thousand  feet  in  height. 
Korea  is  very  mountainous  in  the  north  and  hilly  in  the 
south.  The  watershed  between  the  Sea  of  Japan  and 
the  Yellow  Sea  extends  north  and  south,  nearly  parallel 
to  the  east  coast.  In  a  sense  this  line  of  mountain  ranges 
is  the  backbone  of  the  peninsula ;  the  eastern  side  of  the 
main  watershed  is  narrow  and  abrupt,  while  the  west- 
ern is  more  extended  and  contains  low  plains,  favour- 
able to  agriculture.  The  general  altitude  of  the  peaks 
varies  between  ^Yt  and  six  thousand  feet.  A  few  iso- 
lated points  in  the  extreme  north  are  believed  to  be 
higher. 

The  principal  mining  districts  are  situated  along  the 
courses  of  the  main  and  the  minor  watersheds.     The 

216 


THE   GERMAN    MINES 

famous  mining  districts  of  Kang-kyol,  Kap-san,and  Teh- 
chang-chln,  at  present  In  the  occupation  of  native  work- 
men, occur  upon  the  plateau  formed  by  the  junction  of 
the  range,  which  constitutes  the  northern  frontier  of  the 
province  of  Pyong-an,  with  the  main  watershed  of  the 
country.  The  British  mines  at  Eun-san  are  situated  in 
country  pierced  by  the  north-western  antilles  of  the 
main  watershed.  The  position  of  the  German  mines 
bears  a  similar  relation  to  the  great  natural  division  of 
the  country,  upon  its  eastern  side.  Many  useful  min- 
erals are  distributed  over  Korea — gold,  silver,  lead,  cop- 
per, Iron,  coal — but  that  which  yields  the  richest  harvest 
is  gold.  The  value  of  the  gold  exported  from  Korea 
during  1901  Increased  from  £363,305  in  1900  to  £509,- 
738.  A  further  increase  marks  1902,  the  value  of  the 
gold  exported  being  £516,961.  These  figures  give  only 
the  value  declared  at  the  Customs.  Large  amounts  are 
annually  smuggled  out  of  the  country. 

The  presence  of  gold  has  been  known  from  the  earli- 
est times.  Knochenhauer,  a  German  geologist,  has  de- 
clared it  to  exist  in  every  river  in  the  kingdom.  Hith- 
erto, alluvial  gold  has  been  the  principal  yield  to  native 
workers.  The  miners  followed  the  object  of  their  search 
up  the  mountain  side  until  they  struck  veins  and  lodes, 
whence  much  of  the  alluvial  gold  was  derived.  The 
chief  auriferous  districts  are  in  the  northern  half  of  the 
country;  in  which  sphere  lie  the  American  mine  at 
Un-san,  the  British  mine  at  Eun-san,  and  the  German 
mnie  at  Tong-ko-kai. 

217 


KOREA 

The  original  source  of  Korean  gold  may  be  found  In 
the  quartz  veins,  which,  In  the  case  of  the  American 
mines,  Is  alleged  to  give  exceptionally  rich  returns.  The 
alluvial  deposits,  brought  down  from  the  veins  In  the 
mountaln-rldges,  have  been  freely  worked  by  Koreans; 
and  when  more  scientifically  treated  the  yield  Is  satisfac- 
tory. The  schotter  sediments,  In  the  case  of  the  Tong- 
ko-kai  mines,  attained  a  maximum  of  seventy-five  feet 
In  depth,  a  thickness  of  sedimentary  matter  some  fifty 
feet  In  excess  of  the  usual  formation.  The  concession 
was  granted  In  1898.  Under  It  powers  were  given  to 
a  German  company  to  select  a  place  twenty  miles  long 
and  thirteen  miles  wide,  within  two  years  from  the  date 
of  signing  the  contract,  for  the  purpose  of  working  all 
minerals  during  a  space  of  twenty-five  years,  with  an 
annual  payment  to  the  Korean  Government  of  twenty- 
five  per  cent,  on  the  net  profits.  The  revenues  received 
from  these  contracts  belong  to  the  Imperial  Household, 
passing  directly  Into  the  private  purse  of  the  Sovereign. 
In  the  case  of  the  English  syndicate,  the  percentage  was 
compounded  for  a  sum  of  £20,000  and  an  annual  pay- 
ment of  a  further  £2000. 

The  site,  which  the  Germans  selected  for  their  con- 
cession, was,  at  the  moment  when  they  assumed  control 
over  the  areas,  the  centre  of  extensive  alluvial  workings. 
The  native  miners  strongly  objected  to  the  innovation, 
and  prepared  to  resist  the  rights  of  the  German  com- 
pany by  force.  In  the  end,  however,  their  hostility 
was  overcome  by  granting  them  twelve  months'  addl- 

218 


METHODS   OF    MINING 

tlonal  occupation  of  their  works,  and,  when  Herr  Bauer 
assumed  charge  as  administrative  engineer,  opposition 
was  already  at  an  end.  The  district  is  covered  with  the 
remains  of  old  workings  in  the  schotter  of  the  river- 
bed; they  are  also  to  be  found  in  a  few  places  in  the 
quartz  upon  the  mountain  side.  In  the  absence  of  the 
requisite  machinery,  work  upon  the  concession  was  neces- 
sarily disorganised.  Eventually  the  concession  was 
abandoned,  close  investigation  failing  to  disclose  its  pos- 
session of  any  very  remunerative  quantities.  At  the  time 
of  its  withdrawal,  the  company  employed  nine  Euro- 
peans, thirteen  Japanese  and  Chinese,  and  some  three 
hundred  Koreans. 

Korean  mining  is  very  elementary.  The  usual  meth- 
ods are  "  placer "  and  "  crushing  "  and  a  process  of 
treatment  by  fire.  A  vertical  shaft  is  sunk,  with  narrow 
steps  cut  into  its  sides,  to  the  level  of  the  reef;  the  bot- 
tom of  the  shaft  is  then  packed  with  wood,  which  Is 
Ignited  and  kept  burning  for  several  days.  The  heated 
rock  becomes  very  friable  and  yields  readily  to  the  crude 
implements  of  the  miners.  There  Is  great  competition 
to  secure  the  bottom  pitch  In  these  shafts;  the  more 
Intrepid  rarely  delay  their  descent  until  the  working  has 
cooled.  The  quartz  Is  sometimes  rubbed  to  powder 
and  the  gold  washed  out,  or  it  is  crushed  between  huge 
boulders,  washed,  re-crushed  and  panned  again.  The 
gold  is  then  picked  out.  Until  lately  there  were  no 
places  where  the  gold  was  tested  by  other  than  the  most 
antiquated  methods. 

0.1^ 


KOREA 

Such  sanguine  hopes  have  been  raised  as  to  the  results 
of  the  mining  in  Korea,  that  It  would  be  as  well  If  the 
public  accepted  all  statements  in  regard  to  these  Invest- 
ments with  great  caution.  The  results  of  the  develop- 
ment of  the  various  mining  concessions,  now  In  progress, 
will  be  awaited  with  much  Interest,  and  will,  It  is  to  be 
hoped,  form  a  reliable  test  of  the  mining  possiblHtles  of 
the  country.  The  returns  from  the  American  mines 
encourage  the  belief  that  these  possibilities  have  not 
been  over-estimated;  but  It  has  yet  to  be  proved  that 
mining  operations  can  be  profitably  carried  on  with 
Western  methods  and  appliances.  The  deposits  in 
which  gold  Is  found  in  Korea  are  irregular,  and  by  no 
means  continuous.  To  a  Korean  miner  this  Is  of  small 
importance.  His  outfit  costs  at  the  most  a  few  shillings, 
and  his  belongings  are  easily  transported  to  any  distance 
as  circumstances  demand.  A  different  order  of  things 
is  essential  to  a  successful  installation  of  Western  ma- 
chinery, and  the  public  require  some  proof  that  there  is, 
within  workable  distance,  a  sufficient  quantity  of  ore  to 
yield  a  fair  profit  on  their  Investments.  This  has  yet 
to  be  proved  In  the  case  of  the  British  mine;  In  respect 
of  the  German  concession,  the  business  resulted  In  a 
fiasco.  That  these  mining  enterprises  should  be  success- 
ful Is  desirable  In  the  Interests  of  both  natives  and  for- 
eigners. They  afford  steady  employment  at  a  fair  wage 
to  thousands  of  Koreans,  at  least,  part  of  whose  earnings 
is  expended  In  the  purchase  of  foreign  goods.  It  Is 
perhaps,  however,  not  altogether  unfortunate  that  the 

220 


A   BEAR    HUNT 

Korean  Government  Is  averse,  at  present,  to  grant  fur- 
ther concessions. 

During  our  halt  at  Tong-ko-kai,  one  day  was  spent  in 
climbing  the  mighty  peaks  to  lofty  spots  where,  at  a 
height  of  some  thousands  of  feet,  native  prospectors 
were  driving  Into  the  granite  facing  of  the  mountain  In 
an  effort  to  strike  the  main  reef.  Another  day  was 
passed  In  a  hunt  across  the  crests  of  the  ranges  after 
bear  and  deer.  At  daybreak,  a  little  after  4  A.M.  upon 
the  morning  of  this  excursion,  Herr  Bauer  escorted  us 
to  a  prospector's  hut  In  the  damp  recesses  of  a  distant 
valley,  where  our  beaters,  gun-carriers,  and  hunter- 
guides  had  been  ordered  to  rendezvous  for  a  bear  hunt. 
Alas !  the  Korean  cannot  bestir  himself !  His  late  rising 
on  this  occasion  delayed  our  departure  from  the  hut  two 
hours.  The  sun  had  risen  when  the  expedition  moved 
off,  a  motley  retinue  of  professional  hunters  and  beaters 
accompanying  us  to  the  gorge,  wherein  lay  the  bear. 
Hunters  and  beaters  attached  themselves  to  each  of  us, 
and  we  proceeded  across  the  mountain,  pursuing  a  nar- 
row and  broken  rack,  which  cleft  the  bare  summit  of 
the  highest  ridges.  We  climbed  and  scrambled  up  and 
down  and  in  and  out  of  many  sheltered  and  well-tim- 
bered gorges,  until  the  hunters  warned  us  that  we  were 
approaching  our  stations. 

The  beaters  disappeared,  making  a  detour  of  some  /f, 
to  beat  up  the  many  crooked  twists  and  turns  which  the 
drive  took.  Hours  passed  while  we,  hot,  hungry,  and 
athirst,  lay  hidden  In  the  rank  bush  awaiting  a  sight  of 

221 


KOREA 

the  quarry.  For  the  first  hour  no  sound  broke  the  seren- 
ity of  the  valley;  presently,  however,  the  cries  of  the 
beaters  came  to  us,  wafted  from  below  or  floating  lazily 
from  the  surrounding  heights.  At  first  only  a  distant 
moaning,  like  the  sobbing  of  a  storm  among  the  trees 
of  a  forest,  broke  upon  our  ears.  The  strange  sounds 
created  much  restlessness  among  the  wild  wood-pigeons, 
the  cooing  doves,  and  the  cheery,  chattering  magpies. 
Red-breasted  storks  rose  with  disdainful  elegance  from 
the  shallows  of  the  trickling  stream  and  soared  towards 
other  pools.  The  mists  of  night  rolled  away  from  the 
valley;  the  dew  disappeared  from  the  matted  under- 
growth ;  the  sun  mounted ;  the  day  grew  warmer.  The 
blood  coursed  through  our  veins  as  we  peered  hither  and 
thither,  scanning  the  opposite  face  of  the  valley  with 
the  keenest  vigilance.  The  beaters  were  ascending. 
The  harsh  cries  of  their  raucous  voices  broke  upon  the 
air.  The  air  vibrated  with  eerie  noises;  a  spasmodic 
howling  arose  from  the  depths  of  the  valley,  where  an 
isolated  beater  lashed  himself  into  a  fever  of  vociferous 
discord.  Hoarse  shouts  boomed  above  us,  and  echoed 
against  the  crags  of  the  gorge.  On  either  side  of  us,  the 
valley  resounded  to  the  labours  of  the  beaters,  who, 
gaining  the  extreme  crests,  had  now  descended,  driving 
everything  before  them.  They  approached  rapidly, 
joined  by  the  native  hunters,  who  had  now  taken  up 
positions  upon  the  rocks  which  overlooked  the  place 
where  we  were  hiding.  Our  own  moment  had  arrived. 
Each  man  fingered  his  rifle,  peering  forward  as  the  con- 

222 


WITH    GUN   AND    RIFLE 

eluding  effort  of  the  beaters  burst  forth  In  a  hurricane  of 
clamour.  We  looked  and  waited,  until  the  conclusion 
was  forced  upon  us  that  the  bear  had  already  long  since 
broken  through  the  lines  of  his  pursuers. 

Hunting  in  general  is  considered  a  servile  occupation 
by  the  Koreans,  and  the  pursuit  of  the  deer,  the  bear, 
and  the  tiger  is  not  a  favourite  sport  among  the  young 
bloods  of  the  kingdom.  Nobles,  except  those  who  be- 
long to  a  few  impoverished  families  in  the  extreme 
northern  provinces,  and  who  are  reduced  to  the  pastime 
to  supplement  their  resources,  never  indulge  in  it.  It  is, 
nevertheless,  free  to  all.  There  are  no  game  laws,  no 
proscription  of  arms,  and  few  preserves.  There  is  no 
Interdicted  season  In  any  part  of  the  country.  The  one 
creature  which  it  Is  forbidden  to  destroy  Is  the  falcon, 
whose  life  is  protected  by  most  stringent  enactments. 
The  hunting-grounds  are  almost  solely  confined  to  the 
mountainous  districts,  and  the  hunters  are  a  class  apart 
throughout  the  country.  They  shift  their  grounds  rap- 
Idly  and  constantly  in  search  of  game,  living  at  the  ex- 
pense of  any  village  where  they  may  temporarily  lodge 
in  return  for  the  protection  from  wild  animals  which 
their  prowess  assures  to  the  local  population.  Their 
chief  weapon  Is  the  flint-lock,  imported  from  Japan. 
The  barrel  Is  Inlaid  with  silver,  and  bound  with  thin 
silver  bands  or  strips  of  tin.  This  weapon  Is  loaded 
with  Iron  bullets,  similar  In  size  to  those  contained  In  a 
seven-pound  shrapnel  shell.  The  charge  is  ignited  from 
a  coil  of  plaited  straw-cord,  which  is  kept  alight  during 

223 


KOREA 

the  progress  of  the  hunt  The  stock  Is  short  and  light. 
When  the  gun  is  fired,  the  butt  of  this  curious  and 
antique  weapon  rests  against  the  cheek-bone.  The  faces 
of  many  of  the  hunters,  who  accompanied  us,  were 
scarred  below  the  right  eye. 

Their  dress  Is  characteristic,  and  they  are  further  dis- 
tinguished by  their  boldness,  fearlessness,  and  Independ- 
ent bearing.  They  adopt,  as  a  uniform,  a  blue  canvas 
shirt,  to  which  Is  added  a  blue  or  green  cotton  turban, 
which  Is  coiled  twice  through  the  hair,  the  torn,  frayed 
end  hanging  over  the  forehead.  Coloured  beads  are 
entwined  In  this  head-dress,  and  a  necklace  of  similar 
beads  encircles  the  throat.  Chains  of  seed-beans  hang 
across  the  breast,  to  which  are  fastened  the  many  In- 
genious contrivances  of  their  calling.  The  hunters  Imi- 
tate the  sounds  of  various  birds  and  animals  very  clev- 
erly, particularly  those  of  a  pheasant  calling  to  his  hen 
and  a  doe  crying  to  her  calves.  The  pheasant-call  Is 
made  from  a  disc  of  iron  about  the  size  of  a  sixpenny 
piece.  It  resembles  the  stone  of  an  apricot  and  is 
pierced.  The  decoy  used  for  deer  Is  made  from  a  split 
bamboo  stalk. 

Bird-hunters  never  shoot  their  quarry  upon  the  wing. 
They  disguise  themselves  In  skins  or  feathers,  bringing 
down  their  game  from  some  well-concealed  coign  of 
vantage.  Deer  are  hunted  during  June  and  July.  The 
hunters  form  Into  small  parties,  and  beat  up  the  moun- 
tains for  several  days  until  their  prey  Is  within  gunshot. 
The  horns  are  sold  to  the  native  physicians,  or  exported 

224 


WITH    GUN   AND    RIFLE 

to  China  and  Japan.  When  In  pursuit  of  the  be^r, 
hunters  are  more  than  usually  careful  to  delay  firing 
until  the  effect  of  their  shot  is  certain.  Good  prices  are 
fetched  by  the  various  parts  of  a  bear.  In  addition  to 
the  proceeds  from  the  pelt,  the  flesh,  fat,  sinews  and  gall 
of  a  bear,  supposed  to  possess  certain  medicinal  proper- 
ties, sell  for  their  weight  in  silver.  The  one  royal  quad- 
ruped associated  with  Korea,  as  the  white  elephant  is 
with  Slam,  the  dromedary  with  Egypt,  the  bison  with 
the  United  States,  is  the  tiger.  Unlike  the  Indian 
species,  that  delights  In  the  tropical  jungles,  this  animal 
is  found  In  Korea  In  the  snow  and  forests  of  the  north, 
and  as  far  as  the  fiftieth  parallel.  In  the  mind  of  the 
Korean,  the  tiger  is  the  symbol  of  fierceness,  an  emblem 
of  martial  pomp  and  glory.  The  tiger  hunters  affect  to 
despise  their  noble  game,  and  upon  occasions  they  even 
attack  them  single-handed  with  a  lance  or  short  sword, 
assisted  by  trained  dogs.  Tigers  are  sometimes  caught 
in  pits,  covered  with  earth  and  bushes,  and  filled  with 
stakes.  In  this  condition  it  is  easy  to  kill  them.  The 
hunters  eat  the  meat,  selling  the  skin  and  bones. 

Tiger  hunters  are  exceptionally  courageous.  Their 
services  are  requisitioned  by  their  Government  upon 
occasion  in  the  defence  of  the  Empire.  Armed  with 
matchlock,  spear  and  sword,  they  defeated  the  French, 
under  Admiral  Roze,  In  1866,  and  heroically  resisted 
the  advance  of  the  Americans  In  187 1.  In  190 1  they 
were  assembled  to  protect  the  northern  frontier  from  the 
incursions  of  Manchurlan  bandits. 

225 


CHAPTER   XIX 

The  monks  and  monasteries  of  the  Diamond  Mountains — 
The  Temple  of  Eternal  Rest — The  Temple  of  the  Tree 
of  Buddha — Buddhism 

GAME  abounds  in  the  region  between  the  German 
mines  and  the  Diamond  Mountains,  and  as  we 
moved  slowly  forward  to  the  famous  Monastery  of 
Chang-an,  many  short  halts  were  made  In  search  of  birds 
and  deer.  Unfortunately,  the  deer  evaded  us  and  It 
became  Impossible  to  put  up  the  pheasants  out  of  the 
dense  growth  In  the  bushes  In  which  they  found  cover. 
We  had,  however,  some  sport  among  the  wood-pigeon. 
Korean  hunters  accompanied  us  some  little  distance 
upon  our  journey,  leaving  our  caravan  when  our  ways 
diverged.  Beyond  the  Hal-yong  River  their  track  lay 
to  the  west  Into  the  heart  of  the  mountains;  our  own 
continued  north-east. 

The  hardships,  experienced  In  travelling  through 
Korea,  were  exemplified  by  the  difficulties  of  our  prog- 
ress. They  were  Intensified,  however,  by  our  igno- 
rance of  the  precise  trail,  which  It  was  necessary  to 
follow  across  the  heights  from  Tong-ko-kai  to  the 
mountain  retreat  of  the  pious  monks.  The  Inhabitants 
of  the  village  of  To-chl-dol  warned  our  grooms  of  the 

226 


THE    DIAMOND    MOUNTAINS 

difficulty  of  taking  horses  across  the  Tan-bal-yang  Pass, 
the  one  barrier,  which  remained  unsurmounted,  between 
the  outside  world  and  the  quiet  repose  of  the  first  monas- 
tery In  the  Keum-kang-san.  Until  we  enforced  our 
orders  with  sticks  the  mampus  were  Inclined  to  give  up 
the  enterprise.  Their  opposition  was  momentary;  the 
transition  from  a  somewhat  angry  mood  Into  their  usual 
condition  of  unruffled  composure  and  high  spirits  was 
Instantaneous.  With  untiring  energy  and  patience  they 
encouraged  their  diminutive  ponies  to  climb  the  boul- 
ders; to  twist  and  wriggle  between  the  clumps  of 
tangled  bushes  and  masses  of  rock  which  beset  the  path, 
and  to  scramble  across  the  steeps.  We  followed  a 
dried-up  water  course  at  the  level  of  the  valley,  making 
the  ascent  gradually.  The  climb  was  severe,  and  became 
so  steep  that  the  pack-saddles  slipped  off  the  backs  of  the 
ponies.  It  occupied  our  eight  animals  some  four  hours, 
testing  the  endurance  of  pony  and  groom,  alike  the  prod- 
uct of  the  hills,  stout  of  limb  and  strong  of  wind. 

The  descent  from  the  spirit  shrine,  in  a  gap  on  the 
crest  of  the  range,  was  less  toilsome.  The  grooms 
plaited  ropes  of  green  creepers,  plucked  from  the  bush, 
and  strung  them  round  the  packs.  Walking  behind  the 
ponies,  they  held  to  these  cords,  thus  supporting  the  ani- 
mals and  preventing  the  loads  and  clumsy  saddles  from 
reversing  the  process  of  the  previous  scramble.  Never- 
theless, our  path  was  littered  with  fragments  of  our 
baggage.  The  contrivance  was  successful,  however,  and 
in  the  main  the  little  steeds  picked  their  way  with  an 

227 


KOREA 

easy  accuracy  through  the  cool  green  woods.  The 
mountain  side  was  fragrant  with  innumerable  plants,  the 
bush  a  tangle  of  magnificent  ferns,  trees,  and  shrubs. 
Oaks,  hawthorn,  chestnut,  birch  and  pines  grew  In 
crowded  splendour;  the  wild  rose,  the  freckled  lily,  and 
a  purple  orchid  embroidered  the  moss.  Beyond  the  hol- 
lows of  the  hilly  woodlands,  the  crumpled  backs  of  the 
jagged  mountains  reared  themselves  skyward,  their 
proud  crests  lost  In  the  clouds,  soaring  silently  to  a 
height  of  five  thousand  feet.  Below  in  the  valley,  a 
wall  of  granite  mountains  set  up  an  impenetrable  barrier 
before  a  noisy  river,  which  until  the  advent  of  the  rainy 
season  becomes  the  merest  trickle  of  silver  in  a  lone 
expanse  of  river-bed. 

Our  way  lay  across  the  river-bed  and  thence  into  the 
centre  of  the  mountains,  a  journey  of  one  more  day,  to 
The  Temple  of  Eternal  Rest.  After  crossing  the  Tan- 
bal-yang  Pass  we  delayed,  resting  at  Kal-kan-I.  Starting 
at  daybreak,  upon  the  next  morning  we  moved  through 
the  Kak-pi  Pass  as  the  sun  touched  the  tops  of  the 
mountains,  which  shut  in  the  narrow  valley,  across  which 
lay  the  last  stage  of  the  journey.  We  were  nearing  the 
last  home  of  many  distressed  pilgrims.  In  a  cleft  among 
the  mountains  the  deep  curved  roofs  of  many  temples 
might  be  seen.  The  air  was  tremulous  with  the  pleasant 
jangling  of  bells,  and  from  a  wayside  shrine  the  sweet 
fumes  of  incense  mingled  with  the  scent  of  the  pines. 
The  calm  and  seclusion  of  this  spiritual  retreat  was  in 
itself  soothing;  as  one  passed  beneath  the  red  gate,  that 

228 


THE   TEMPLE   OF   ETERNAL   REST 

indicates  royal  patronage,  the  placid  gentleness  of  the 
scene  was  an  allurement  to  the  consolation  and  protec- 
tion offered  by  this  Buddhistic  asylum. 

There  are  thirty-four  monasteries  and  monastic 
shrines  In  the  Keum-kang-san,  and  they  are  tended  by 
three  hundred  monks  and  sixty  nuns.  Chang-an  Is  the 
oldest,  and  has  been  In  existence  for  some  generations. 
In  515  A.D.,  during  the  reign  of  Po-pheung,  a  king  of 
Sllla,  It  was  restored  by  two  monks,  Yul-sa  and  Chln- 
kyo.  Other  monasteries,  akin  to  this  In  their  romantic 
setting  and  picturesque  seclusion,  are  Pyo-un,  which, 
together  with  Chang-an  Is  situated  upon  the  western 
slopes,  Yu-chom  and  Sin-ga  upon  the  eastern  slopes. 
These,  with  thirty  others  of  less  Importance,  excite  the 
most  profound  Interest  and  enthusiasm  among  the  Ko- 
reans, many  of  whom  repeatedly  brave  the  difficulties 
and  fatigues  of  travel  In  the  Diamond  Mountains  to 
visit  them. 

The  four  chief  monasteries  are  served  by  one  hun- 
dred and  seventy  monks  and  thirty  nuns.  The  main 
temple  of  Chang-an  Is  a  large  building,  forty-eight  feet 
In  height,  of  the  type  to  which  travellers  In  the  East 
soon  become  accustomed.  The  wooden  structure  Is 
rectangular,  with  two  roofs,  deep,  curved  and  richly 
carved  eaves,  the  heavy  tiled  roofs  being  supported  upon 
teak  pillars  three  feet  In  circumference.  The  diamond- 
cut  panels  of  the  doors,  which  serve  as  windows,  are 
ornamented  with  gold,  and  the  lofty  celling  is  carved 
and  wrought  In  rich  designs,  lavishly  gilded  and  highly 

229 


KOREA 

coloured  In  blue,  red,  green  and  gold.  Granite  steps 
give  access  to  the  temples ;  the  main  beams  and  supports 
of  the  whole  edifice  resting  upon  huge  circular  slabs  of 
this  stone. 

On  the  Inner  walls  of  this  building  there  are  scenes 
from  the  life  of  Gautama,  the  apostle  of  the  Buddhistic 
creed.  A  gilded  Image  figures  as  the  centre  of  a  golden 
group  of  seven  past  and  future  godheads.  Incarnations 
of  the  One  and  sublime  Sakya-munI,  whose  future  reap- 
pearance Is  anticipated  by  the  faithful.  Brass  Incense- 
burners,  candlesticks,  and  a  manuscript  book  of  masses 
In  Chinese  and  Korean  characters,  resting  upon  a  faded 
cover  of  soiled  and  dusty  brocade,  furnish  the  front  of 
the  altar.  Before  this  high  altar,  wonderfully  Impres- 
sive and  Inspiring  In  the  dim  religious  light  of  the  vast 
interior,  a  priest  spends  certain  hours  of  the  day  and 
night  in  profound  obeisance,  intoning,  chanting  and  gab- 
bling monotonously  and  with  constant  genuflections,  the 
words  Na-mu  Ami  Tabid.  This  expression  is  a  phonetic 
rendering  of  certain  Thibetan  words,  the  meaning  of 
which  the  Abbot  himself  was  unable  to  explain;  when 
transcribed  In  Chinese  characters  it  appears  equally 
unintelligible. 

Other  temples  in  this  particular  monastery  are  dedi- 
cated to  The  Abode  of  Virtue,  The  Four  Sages,  and 
The  Ten  Judges.  Within  these  edifices  Sakya-munI  and 
his  disciples  sit  In  different  attitudes  of  ineffable  abstrac- 
tion, contemplating  gruesome  pictures  of  demons,  ani- 
mals, and  the  torments  awarded  in  after-life  to  the 

230 


TEMPLE   OF   THE   TREE   OF    BUDDHA 

wicked.  Many  of  the  buildings  of  Chang-an  have  been 
restored  within  recent  years.  The  work  has  been  com- 
pleted long  since,  and  the  spacious  courtyards  are  now 
well  kept.  The  temples  are  clean  and  spotless,  the  whole 
monastery  bearing  witness  to  the  care  with  which  it  is 
maintained. 

Besides  the  more  important  temples,  there  are  many 
smaller  shrines,  set  within  some  forest  nook;  a  stage  for 
the  more  important  religious  observances,  bell  and  tablet 
houses,  stables  for  the  ponies  of  the  numerous  visitors,  a 
nunnery  and  a  refectory  for  the  Abbot  and  monks. 
There  are,  in  addition,  cells  for  the  priests  and  quarters 
for  the  servants.  Accommodation  is  found  for  the 
widows,  orphans,  and  the  destitute;  for  the  lame,  the 
halt,  and  the  blind ;  for  the  aged  and  forlorn,  to  whom 
the  monks  grant  shelter  and  protection.  Besides  the 
Abbot,  there  were  in  the  monastery  some  twenty  other 
men,  monks,  priests  and  neophytes,  and  ten  nuns  of  vari- 
ous ages,  ranging  from  girlhood  to  wrinkled  wisdom. 

The  establishment  derives  its  revenues  from  the  rent 
and  proceeds  of  the  Church  lands,  donations  from  pil- 
grims and  guests,  occasional  benefactions  from  the 
wealthy,  and  the  collections  made  by  the  mendicant 
monks.  These  latter  chant  the  litanies  of  Buddha  from 
house  to  house,  and  travel  throughout  the  Empire,  find- 
ing food  and  lodging  by  the  wayside,  to  collect  the 
scanty  contributions  which  their  solicitations  evoke. 
The  four  great  monasteries  are  presided  over  by  a  mem- 
ber of  the  community,  who  Is  elected  annually  to  the 

231 


KOREA 

office.  Unless  his  conduct  gives  rise  to  dissatisfaction, 
he  is  maintained  in  authority,  usually  until  his  death,  or 
transference  to  some  other  centre  of  Buddhistic  activity. 
The  practices  and  observances,  in  these  monasteries  of 
the  Diamond  Mountains,  conform  to  the  principles  of 
the  religion  of  Buddha,  as  nearly  as  do  the  customs  and 
manners  of  our  own  Church  to  the  varied  tenets  of 
Christianity  throughout  the  world. 

I  confess  myself  sorely  puzzled  to  discover  any  sub- 
stratum of  truth  in  the  charges  of  gross  profligacy  and 
irreverence  which  the  agent  of  an  American  Missionary 
Society  brings  against  the  monasteries  of  the  Keum- 
kang-san.  Personally,  after  spending  many  weeks  in 
the  calm  seclusion  of  this  monastic  region,  I  prefer  to 
recall  the  kindhness  of  the  monks — their  real  Christian 
charity — to  the  poor  and  afl^icted,  to  the  hungry  and 
sore  distressed,  as  to  all  w^ho  come  to  them  in  times  of 
miser}^  and  evil.  If  many  of  them  learn  the  litanies  of 
their  liturgy  by  heart,  if  they  lack  scholarship,  if  they  do 
not  know  the  meaning  of  much  upon  which  they  spend 
so  many  weary  hours  of  their  lives,  are  not  these  slight 
things  when  weighed  against  their  profound  humanity, 
their  gentleness  to  everything  which  breathes,  their 
benevolence  to  the  old  and  destitute,  their  exceeding 
humility,  their  wonderful  toleration,  the  quietness  and 
extreme  simplicity  of  their  lives,  and  the  humanitarian 
nature  of  their  interests? 

The  Monastery  of  Yu-chom  is  all  peace  and  quietude. 
It  lies,  shut  off  from  all  contact  with  the  outer  world, 

232 


TEMPLE    OF   THE   TREE    OF    BUDDHA 

within  a  deep,  tree-clad  valley  of  the  eastern  ranges.  It 
Is  self-contained,  and  Its  whole  existence  is  wrapped  up 
in  the  mysteries  of  that  faith  to  whose  services  it  is  dedi- 
cated. There  is  no  booming  torrent,  such  as  that  which 
vibrates  and  thunders  through  the  Chang-an-sa  gorge; 
a  subdued  babble  alone  rises  from  the  water,  which  wells 
from  some  rocks  deep  In  the  recesses  of  the  prevailing 
bush.  Its  appearance  is  strangely  solemn,  and  it  exerts 
over  the  daily  lives  of  the  coterie  of  monks,  assembled 
within  Its  walls,  an  influence  that  conduces  to  their  ex- 
treme asceticism.  The  atmosphere  of  repose  and  seclu- 
sion, In  which  a  soul  distressed  finds  so  much  comfort, 
broods  over  the  whole  community. 

The  most  Imposing  of  the  thirty-four  Buddhist  re- 
treats within  the  Diamond  Mountains  Is  Yu-chom-sa. 
It  may  be  approached  from  the  western  side  of  the 
Keum-kang-san  by  climbing  the  rocky  path  of  the 
Chang-an-sa  gorge,  and  crossing  the  watershed  through 
the  An-man-chal  Pass,  42 15  feet  In  height.  The  descent 
is  made  by  a  rough  and  picturesque  track  through  deep 
woods  to  the  cluster  of  temples  upon  the  eastern  face  of 
the  range.  Another  way,  which,  after  a  short  detour 
from  Chang-an-sa,  Is  an  easier  route,  lies  over  the  Pu-tl- 
chong  Pass,  3700  feet  in  height;  after  winding  through 
some  miles  of  forest,  it  drops  directly  upon  a  track, 
which  leads  to  the  gates  of  the  monastery.  Each  road 
starts  from  Chang-an-sa,  and  the  crossing  of  the  moun- 
tains must  be  undertaken  by  all  who  wish  to  visit  the 
monasteries  upon  the  eastern  slopes.     The  journey  in 

233 


KOREA 

either  direction  can  be  accomplished  within  eight  hours; 
the  difficulties  of  the  bed  of  the  Chang-an-sa  torrent 
render  this  route  Impassable  to  horses,  etc.  Lightly- 
loaded  ponies  can  be  taken  across  the  Pu-tl-chong.  The 
hire  of  coolies  Is  recommended  and  one  Korean  dollar 
for  each  man  Is  the  tariff. 

The  temples  of  Yu-chom-sa  are  very  similar  to  those 
at  Chang-an-sa.  They  are,  however,  more  numerous 
and  more  richly  endowed.  Before  the  steps  of  the  main 
temple  there  Is  a  small  granite  pagoda,  whose  graceful 
proportions  give  an  element  of  dignity  to  the  spacious 
courtyard  upon  which  the  principal  temples  of  the 
monastery  abut.  The  altar  of  this  temple  Is  adorned  by 
a  singular  piece  of  wood-carving.  Upon  the  roots  of 
an  upturned  tree  sit  or  stand  fifty-three  diminutive 
figures  of  Buddha.  The  monks  tell  an  old-world  legend 
of  this  strange  structure.  Many  centuries  ago,  fifty- 
three  priests,  who  had  journeyed  from  India  to  Korea 
to  Introduce  the  precepts  of  Buddha  Into  this  ancient 
land,  sat  down  by  a  well  beneath  a  spreading  tree. 
Three  dragons  presently  emerged  from  the  depths  of  the 
well  and  attacked  the  fifty-three,  calling  to  their  aid  the 
wind-dragon,  who  thereupon  uprooted  the  tree.  As  the 
fight  proceeded,  the  priests  managed  to  place  an  Image 
of  Buddha  upon  each  root  of  the  tree,  converting  the 
whole  into  an  altar,  under  whose  influence  the  dragons 
were  forced  back  into  their  cavernous  depths,  when  huge 
rocks  were  piled  into  the  well  to  shut  them  up.  The 
monks  then  founded  the  monastery,  building  the  main 

234 


BUDDHISM 

temple  above  the  remains  of  the  vanquished  dragons. 
Upon  each  side  of  the  fantastic  altar-piece  there  is  a 
carved  design  of  lotus  leaves  several  feet  in  width  and 
height;  at  the  feet  of  an  immense  image  of  the  divine 
Buddha,  golden  and  bejewelled,  which  graces  the  centre 
of  the  shrine,  are  several  magnificent  bronze  bowls  of 
vast  size,  weight,  and  antiquity.  Blue  and  red  silk-gauze 
draperies,  serving  the  purpose  of  a  screen,  hang  from 
the  massive  beams  in  the  roof. 

The  figures  seen  in  Korean  temples  are  reproduced  in 
Budhlst  temples  throughout  Asia,  the  supreme  and 
central  form  being  that  of  Sakya-muni  or  Buddha.  In 
the  sculpture  and  artistic  development  of  this,  the  central 
figure  of  their  pantheon,  there  is  little,  if  any,  deviation 
from  the  conventional  traditions  of  India,  Slam,  Thibet, 
and  Mongolia.  The  sage  is  crouching  on  his  knees  with 
the  soles  of  his  feet  turned  upward  to  the  face;  the 
palms  and  fingers  of  his  hands  pressed  together;  the 
eyes  are  slightly  oblique,  and  the  lobes  of  the  ears  some- 
what bulbous.  The  throne  consists  of  the  open  calyx 
of  a  lotus  flower,  the  symbol  of  eternity.  The  splendour 
of  the  figures  in  the  Temple  of  the  Tree  of  Buddha  is 
noticeable;  and  the  lustre  of  the  heavy  gilding  gleams 
from  about  the  altar  into  the  dimness  and  uncertain  light 
of  the  vast  chamber  like  the  rays  of  some  spiritual  fire. 
Devotional  exercises  never  cease  In  this  House  of  the 
Ever-Supreme  Lord,  the  services  and  constant  offering 
of  prayer  being  taken  in  turn  by  the  officiating  priests. 
At  these  moments,  when  the  lonely  figure  of  the  priest 

235 


KOREA 

Is  seen  pleading  with  the  Ever-Supreme  Lord,  In  his 
most  sacred  Temple  and  before  his  most  sacred  shrine, 
for  the  grace  of  forgiveness,  the  scene  Is  one  of  the  most 
extraordinary  solemnity.  As  the  chant  rises  and  falls 
in  the  great  spaces  of  the  hall  and  the  swaying  figure 
rocks  in  the  despair  of  his  passionate  self-abandonment 
the  sympathies  and  emotions  are  strangely  stirred.  The 
stages  of  the  services  are  marked  by  blows  upon  a  bell 
which  the  priest  holds  before  him,  the  while  he  casts 
himself  upon  his  face  and  kneels  before  the  resplendent 
Buddha. 

The  chief  celebrations  of  the  day  and  night  In  Yu- 
chom-sa  are  accompanied  by  the  booming  of  the  great 
bronze  bell — an  elaborate  casting  of  the  fourteenth 
century — and  by  the  beating  of  a  large  circular  drum 
many  feet  In  circumference.  Both  instruments  stand  In 
their  own  towers  in  the  courtyard.  During  the  minor 
services,  the  genuflections  of  the  priests  are  accompanied 
by  the  jarring  notes  of  the  small  brass  bells,  which  they 
strike  repeatedly  with  deer-horns.  A  magnificent  figure 
of  Buddha  sits  in  the  Temple  of  the  Lotus  Blossom,  In 
an  attitude  of  impassive  benignity  behind  a  screen  of 
glass,  looking  solemnly  upon  the  devotions  and  pious 
exercises  of  his  faithful  attendants.  This  altar  Is  re- 
cessed, the  entire  shrine  being  protected  by  plates  of 
glass,  and  the  offerings  of  rice,  which  are  presented  to 
the  altar  for  benediction,  stand  without  the  screen. 
Among  other  temples  and  shrines  at  Yu-chom-sa  there 
are  the  House  of  Everlasting  Life,  the  Temple  of  the 

236 


BUDDHISM 

Water  Month,  the  Temple  of  People  who  come  from 
the  West.  There  are  fifty  monks  in  Yu-chom-sa,  twelve 
nuns,  and  eight  boys  who  have  not  yet  been  admitted  to 
the  order.  Many  of  the  boys  in  these  monasteries  are 
quite  young.  Some  have  been  handed  over  by  their 
parents  in  extreme  infancy,  while  others  have  been  re- 
ceived out  of  the  wide  charity  of  the  Buddhists,  and 
dedicated  to  the  service  of  the  monasteries.  These  boys 
appear  intelligent.  They  are  taught  little  beyond  the 
different  chants  and  litanies,  with  the  words  of  which 
they  soon  become  familiar.  The  boys  are  clean  and  well 
fed;  but  the  monks,  if  equally  clean,  are  more  sparing 
in  their  diet.  Their  frugal  repast  consists  of  rice  and 
varieties  of  miinced  vegetables,  cakes  of  pine  nuts  glued 
together  with  honey,  and  other  cakes  of  popped  rice  and 
honey.  The  extreme  richness  of  the  dishes  soon  palls 
upon  the  palate.  While  managing  to  exist,  signs  of 
emaciation  are  noticeable  in  their  bodies  and  faces. 
Among  the  nuns  who  are  attracted  to  these  different 
monasteries,  there  are  many  who  have  entered  the 
cloister  from  religious  motives,  and  a  few  who,  alone  in 
the  world,  find  it  a  convenient  spot  In  which  to  pass  their 
lives.  Neither  class,  however,  encroaches  upon  the  re- 
ligious and  devotional  functions  of  the  monks,  but  lives 
entirely  apart,  existing  altogether  in  a  world  of  their 
own  making. 

The  forms  of  religion  which  prevail  In  Korea  to-day 
are  Buddhism,  Confucianism,  and  Shamanism.  State- 
ments of  ancient  Chinese  and  Japanese  writers,  and  the 

237 


KOREA 

early  Jesuit  missionaries,  tend  to  prove  that  the  worship 
of  spirits  and  demons  has  been  the  basis  of  national 
belief  since  the  earliest  times.  The  god  of  the  hills  Is 
even  now  the  most  popular  deity.  Worship  of  the 
spirits  of  heaven  and  earth,  of  the  invisible  powers  of 
the  air,  of  nature,  of  the  morning  star,  of  the  guardian 
genii  of  the  hills  and  rivers,  and  of  the  soil  and  grain, 
has  been  so  long  practised  J:hat,  in  spite  of  the  Influences 
of  Confucianism,  and  the  many  centuries  In  which  Bud- 
dhism has  existed  in  the  land,  the  actual  worship  of  the 
great  mass  of  the  people  has  undergone  little  material 
alteration.  However  widespread  this  leaning  of  the 
lower  classes  towards  demonolatry  may  be,  the  philoso- 
phy of  Confucius  has  been  from  the  fifteenth  century  the 
official  and  fashionable  cult  In  Korea.  In  Its  middle 
period.  It  attained  to  that  point  when  a  religion,  which 
at  first  was  fostered  by  the  few  and  has  spread  gradually 
until  it  became  absorbed  by  the  people,  feels  Itself  firmly 
established,  and  emphasises  Its  ascendency  by  the  bigotry 
of  its  assertions.  Its  Intolerance,  and,  crowning  triumph 
of  all  usurping  tenets,  by  the  virulence  of  Its  persecution. 
Confucianism  now  overspreads  the  whole  peninsula. 
From  the  fourth  to  the  fourteenth  century,  when  the 
religion  of  the  Enlightened  One  prevailed.  It  was  stud- 
ied and  practised  only  by  the  learned  classes.  Buddhism 
predominated  throughout  the  southern  half  of  the  penin- 
sula, and  only  partially  leavened  the  northern  division 
of  the  Empire,  where  it  was  unable  to  combat  the  teach- 
ings of  Confucius.    Throughout  its  development,  how- 

238 


BUDDHISM 

ever,  Buddhism  has  exercised  a  potent  Influence  In  Ko- 
rean affairs,  which  continued  until  the  close  of  the  last 
dynasty.  The  power  of  the  bonzes  at  one  time  con- 
trolled the  Court  and  nullified  the  decrees  of  the  mon- 
arch. During  Its  pristine  supremacy  It  became  the 
strongest  and  most  formidable  factor  In  the  education 
of  the  country.  It  wielded  unlimited  and  unrestricted 
power,  while  it  guided  the  political  and  social  revolu- 
tions of  the  period.  Great  respect  Is  still  shown  to  the 
tenets  of  Buddhism  in  Korea.  New  monasteries  and 
temples  are  in  process  of  construction — the  Buddhist 
priests  of  Japan  and  Korea  making  common  cause 
against  the  activities  of  Western  missionaries.  The  Em- 
peror has  also  shown  himself  Interested  in  the  propaga- 
tion of  this  faith,  and,  with  Lady  Om,  he  has  given 
large  sums  to  the  restoration  of  certain  dilapidated  tem- 
ples without  the  city.  All  things  considered.  Bud- 
dhism has  left  such  a  mark  upon  the  history  of  the  little 
kingdom  that,  although  the  purely  ethical  character  of 
the  teachings  of  Confucius  be  acknowledged,  Korea 
must  be  classed  among  the  Buddhist  countries  of  the 
earth. 


239 


CHAPTER   XX 

The  Abomination   of  desolation — Across   Korea — The  east 
coast — Fishing  and  filth 

THE  peace,  piety,  and  sublime  earnestness  of  the 
monks  of  the  monasteries  of  Yu-chom  and 
Chang-an  is  in  startling  contrast  to  the  state  of  things  at 
Shin-ki-sa.  The  magnificence  of  Yu-chom-sa,  and  the 
charitable  benevolence  of  Chang-an-sa,  engender  a  mood 
of  sympathetic  appreciation  and  toleration  towards 
those,  whose  lives  are  dedicated  to  the  service  of  Bud- 
dha, in  these  isolated  retreats  of  the  Diamond  Moun- 
tains. The  spectacle  presented  by  the  monastery  at  the 
north-eastern  base  of  the  Keum-kang-san,  however,  re- 
veals the  existence  of  certain  evils  which  happily  do  not 
disfigure  the  more  important  Buddhist  centres  in  this 
region.  It  Is  not  time  which  alone  has  brought  about 
the  disorder;  nor  would  the  material  decay  be  so 
lamentable  if  the  dignity  and  charm  of  a  picturesque 
ruin  were  not  lacking.  The  tone  of  the  monks  here  Is 
totally  different.  Everything  Is  neglected,  and  every 
one  Is  Indifferent  to  the  needs  of  the  temples.  A  litter 
of  broken  tiles  lies  about  the  buildings;  dirt  and  dust, 
the  natural  consequences  of  carelessness  and  neglect,  dis- 

240 


DESOLATION 

grace  them  within.  The  spirit  of  reverence  is  wanting. 
The  scene  is  changed. 

Shin-ki  is  a  small  monastery.  Perhaps  its  temples 
have  never  been  comparable  with  the  shrines  of  Yu- 
chom-sa  in  grace  and  beauty.  Nothing,  however,  can 
excuse  the  disorder  and  neglect  of  its  court-yards,  and 
the  slovenliness  of  the  temple  service.  There  seems  to 
be  nothing  in  common  between  this  and  those  other 
monasteries,  which  rest  within  the  heart  of  the  ranges. 
One  looks  in  vain  for  the  courtly  dignity  of  the  aged 
Abbot  of  Yu-chom-sa,  whose  humanitarian  spirit  was  so 
impressive.  The  principles  of  consideration,  politeness, 
and  devotion  that  govern  his  conduct  are  sadly  lacking 
in  the  Abbot,  the  priests,  and  monks  attached  to  Shin- 
ki-sa.  The  contrast  is  indeed  great.  The  most  painful 
emotions  are  excited  by  the  decline  which  has  taken 
place  in  the  prosperity  of  the  temples.  Anger  and  sor- 
row fill  the  soul.  As  one  gazes  beyond  the  temples  into 
the  peace  and  beauty  of  the  valley  below,  it  is  as  if  one 
were  looking  across  from  a  place  of  abomination  into 
another  and  a  better  world.  The  colourless  skeleton  of 
the  past  alone  remains,  and  one  longs  for  the  power  to 
restore  the  fabric  to  its  former  self. 

In  its  setting  the  monastery  has  caught  something 
of  the  spirit  of  nature.  If  there  is  any  compensating 
element  in  its  decadence,  it  is  found  in  the  wild  beauty 
of  the  rugged  mountains,  which  tower  above  it  from 
across  the  valley.  Beyond  their  granite  faces  lie  the 
trials  and  tribulations  of  the  outer  world;  once  enclosed 

241 


KOREA 

within  their  grey  embrace  the  little  ironies  of  life  dis- 
appear. The  hours  are  cool  and  undisturbed.  Primeval 
forests  adorn  the  deep  gullies  of  the  ranges;  a  flood 
of  colour  comes  from  the  open  spaces  where  wild 
flowers  are  growing  and  the  tints  of  the  woodland 
foliage  disclose  an  endless  variety  of  green.  In  the 
centre  of  a  patch,  cleared  of  Its  undergrowth  and 
approached  by  a  path  winding  through  deep  woods,  Is 
Mum-sa-am.  This  retreat  Is  given  over  to  the  twenty 
nuns  who  are  associated  with  Shin-kl-sa.  I  know  noth- 
ing of  their  lives,  but  from  the  state  of  their  temples, 
and  the  roughness  and  disorder  of  their  surroundings,  it 
did  not  appear  to  me  that  they,  any  more  than  the  sixty 
priests,  monks,  and  boys  of  the  lower  monastery,  find  the 
tenets  of  Buddha  very  elevating,  or  derive  much  satisfac- 
tion from  the  surrounding  scenery. 

The  history  of  our  days  In  the  more  important  monas- 
teries of  the  Diamond  Mountains  was  uneventful. 
The  anxious  care  and  solicitude  of  the  monks  for  the 
welfare  of  their  guests  was  hourly  manifested,  and  some 
kindly  attention  was  shown  to  us  at  every  possible  oppor- 
tunity. Cool  and  lofty  quarters  were  allotted  for  our 
entertainment;  the  resources  of  the  monastery  were 
placed  at  our  disposal.  The  Abbot  of  Chang-an-sa  pre- 
pared draughts  of  honey-water  and  cakes  of  pine-seeds 
for  our  refreshment.  Every  morning  supplies  of  honey, 
rice,  and  flour,  and  small  bundles  of  fresh  vegetables 
were  brought  to  the  table ;  throughout  the  day  nothing 
was  left  undone,  which.  In  the  minds  of  these  simple 

242 


ACROSS    KOREA 

men,  would  be  conducive  to  our  comfort.  A  deep  pool 
in  the  tumbling  mountain-stream  was  reserved  for  our 
use,  and  when,  in  the  fresh  air  of  the  morning,  and 
again  when  the  cool  winds  of  the  evening  had  tempered 
the  heat  of  the  day,  we  went  to  bathe,  the  Abbot,  upon 
his  own  initiative,  arranged  that  we  should  be  left  in 
undisturbed  possession  of  the  water-hole. 

The  Temple,  which  we  occupied  during  our  stay  at 
Chang-an-sa,  contained  The  Altar  of  the  Three  Bud- 
dhas.  The  building  was  spacious  and  impressive.  A 
wide  verandah  surrounded  it,  teak  pillars  supported  a 
massive  roof;  scrolls  and  allegorical  pictures,  illustrat- 
ing incidents  in  the  life  of  Buddha,  decorated  the  wall. 
Layers  of  oiled  paper  carpeted  the  floor;  an  altar  cloth 
of  silk,  richly  embroidered,  small  mats,  bronze  incense 
bowls  and  brass  candelabra,  embellished  the  altar,  in  the 
centre  of  which  was  a  large  gilt  image  of  the  Three 
Buddhas.  Every  evening  at  sunset,  the  monks  who  offi- 
ciated in  this  Temple  placed  bowls  of  rice,  honey,  and 
pine-seed  cakes  upon  the  altar,  and  lighted  the  small 
lamps  and  candles  which  illuminated  It.  Prayers  were 
not  always  said,  nor  were  the  services  always  the  same, 
the  numbers  of  the  monks  varying  nightly  according  to 
the  character  of  the  special  office.  When  the  services 
concluded,  there  were  many  who  found  something  to 
attract  them  in  our  small  encampment.  They  gathered 
round  the  kitchen ;  they  assisted  the  interpreter  to  cook, 
and  tasted  his  dishes.  They  handled  with  amazement 
the  cooking  utensils  of  a  camp-kitchen,  the  cutlery  of  a 

243 


KOREA 

traveller's  table.  Occasionally,  as  their  Increasing  famil- 
iarity brought  about  some  small  degree  of  intimacy  be- 
tween us,  the  monks  would  display  their  beads  and  alms- 
bowls  for  our  Inspection,  requesting  our  acceptance  of 
copies  of  their  books  In  return  for  photographs  of  their 
temples.  The  intricacies  of  a  camera  delighted  them,  the 
appearance  of  a  sporting  rifle  created  consternation  in 
their  breasts,  and  they  were  never  tired  of  swinging  in 
my  camp-bed. 

Before  the  camp  at  Chang-an-sa  was  shifted  to  Yu- 
chom-sa,  a  fast  friendship,  engendered  by  many  kindly 
acts  and  the  uninterrupted  expression  of  a  thoughtful 
consideration  for  our  needs,  sprung  up  between  the 
monks  and  ourselves.  They  consulted  us  about  their  ail- 
ments, which  usually  took  the  shape  of  an  acute  attack 
of  indigestion  or  a  form  of  intermittent  dysentery.  My 
medicines  were  limited  to  some  quinine  pills  and  a  bottle 
of  fruit  salts;  they  accepted  either  prescription  with 
gratitude  and  much  melancholy  philosophy.  But  al- 
though they  remained  always  the  same  well-disposed 
visitors  to  our  camp,  I  noted  that  they  did  not  frequently 
present  themselves  as  candidates  for  treatment  again. 
When  the  moment  came  for  our  departure,  many  small 
gifts  were  pressed  upon  us.  For  a  long  time,  too,  it 
seemed  as  if  it  would  be  Impossible  to  obtain  an  account 
of  our  indebtedness  to  the  monastery.  In  the  end  the 
persuasion  of  the  Interpreter  prevailed.  When  we  added 
to  the  reckoning  a  few  dollars  for  the  funds  of  the 
monastery,  the  expressions  of  gratitude  and  apprecla- 

244 


ACROSS   KOREA 

tlon,  to  which  our  little  gift  gave  rise,  made  It  almost 
possible  to  believe  that  the  kindness  and  hospitality 
shown  had  been  all  on  our  side. 

Our  quarters  at  Yu-chom-sa  were  in  no  sense  Inferior, 
and  none  the  less  delightful  In  their  situation,  to  those 
which  we  left  behind  at  Chang-an-sa.  The  guest-house 
In  Yu-chom-sa  affords  views  of  the  mountain  torrent  as 
it  dashes  through  the  boulder-strewn,  tree-clad  slopes  of 
the  valley.  At  Chang-an-sa  we  camped  beneath  the 
protecting  eaves  of  the  spacious  verandah  which  sur- 
rounds the  Temple  of  The  Three  Buddhas,  avoiding 
whenever  possible  any  general  use  of  the  sacred  edifice. 
In  the  case  of  Yu-chom-sa,  this  diffidence  was  unneces- 
sary; the  building  placed  at  our  disposal  being  that  usu- 
ally set  aside  for  the  requirements  of  those  persons  of 
official  position  who  might  be  visiting  the  monastery. 
The  apartments  were  clean,  comfortable,  and  bright. 
They  were  hung  with  tablets,  upon  which  had  been  In- 
scribed the  names  and  dignities  of  previous  visitors. 
High  walls  enclosed  the  buildings,  and  massive  gates 
preserved  the  compound  from  unexpected  intrusion. 
The  life  In  these  encampments  is  one  of  Ideal  peace 
and  happiness.  It  was  possible  to  work  undisturbed 
and  unprovoked  by  any  harrowing  influences.  Indeed, 
there  was  no  suggestion  of  any  other  existence.  We 
lived  in  the  seclusion  of  a  sanctuary,  where  mortal  mis- 
givings had  not  penetrated,  and  where  the  tribulations, 
which  oppress  mankind,  were  unknown. 

Beyond  Shin-ki-sa,  a  journey  of  fifteen  /f,  a  well-made 

245 


KOREA 

road  leads  east  north-east  to  the  coast,  which  it  touches 
at  Syong-chik.  The  sight  and  scent  of  the  sea,  after 
the  exhausting  discomforts  of  Shin-ki-sa,  was  peculiarly 
welcome.  Between  Yu-chom-sa  and  Shin-ki-sa  the  coun- 
try is  intersected  with  marshes  and  rice-fields.  The  diffi- 
culties of  marching  through  these  bogs  and  mud-holes 
greatly  impeded  the  horses.  The  road  by  the  coast,  if 
rough  and  stony  in  places,  is  at  least  free  from  these 
obstacles,  affording  a  tortuous,  but  none  the  less  pleas- 
ant, course.  Wending  across  basaltic  slopes,  ascending 
their  smooth  surfaces  by  a  series  of  roughly-hewn  steps, 
it  drops  to  a  level  of  burnished  sand.  A  sweep  inland 
to  the  west  and  south-west  avoids  the  rugged  spurs  of  a 
neighbouring  range.  The  sea  licks  the  white  sand  with 
gentle  murmurs  and  the  slight  breeze  scarcely  ripples  the 
blue  surface,  the  constant  variations,  which  the  golden 
sands  and  glittering  sea,  the  open  valleys  and  green  hills 
present,  adding  to  the  charm  and  freshness  of  the  jour- 
ney. The  feeling  of  isolation,  inseparable  from  travel 
in  regions  where  the  sense  of  freedom  is  shut  out  by  a 
world  of  enclosing  mountains,  is  at  once  lost  in  contact 
with  the  ocean  and  the  ships  that  go  down  to  it.  Far 
out,  in  the  great  expanse  of  the  peaceful  sea,  were  fish- 
ing-boats, grey  junks,  hull  down  upon  the  horizon,  their 
brown  sails  bellying  spasmodically  in  the  fitful  gusts  of 
the  breeze.  In  the  shallows  off-shore  men,  brown  and 
naked,  dragged  for  herring  and  sprat  while  their  chil- 
dren gathered  crabs,  diving  after  their  victims  in  the 
deep  pools  with  screams  of  delight. 

246 


ACROSS   KOREA 

Around  the  hovels,  in  all  these  clusters  of  small  vil- 
lages by  the  waves,  men  slept  in  the  blazing  sunshine. 
While  their  lords  reposed,  the  women  mended  the  rents 
in  the  nets,  or  busied  themselves  in  constructing  crude 
traps,  with  the  aid  of  which  their  husbands  contrived  to 
catch  fish.  The  aspect  of  these  villages  upon  the  beach 
was  not  inviting;  and  they  did  not  compare  favourably 
with  any  of  the  Inland  villages  through  which  we  had 
passed.  They  were  dim%  tumble-down,  and  untidy;  the 
appearance  of  the  people  suggested  great  personal  un- 
cleanliness.  The  air  was  laden  with  the  smell  of  fish 
dr}-ing  in  the  sun — of  itself  a  pleasant  perfume,  smack- 
ing of  the  salt  of  the  sea — but  here  so  mingled  with  the 
odours  of  decaying  offal,  piles  of  rubbish,  and  varieties 
of  fish  and  seaweed  in  different  stages  of  decomposition 
that  the  condensed  effluvium  was  sickening.  The  peo- 
ple, however,  were  neither  curious  nor  unkindly;  for  the 
great  part  they  were  indifferent,  offering  baskets  of  fresh 
eggs,  fish,  and  chickens  readily  for  sale.  The  beach  by 
these  villages  was  black  with  rows  of  fish,  dr}'ing,  upon 
the  white  sand,  in  the  most  primitive  fashion.  The  art 
of  smoking  fish  is  unknown,  and  the  careless  manner  In 
which  the  curing  Is  done  proves  that  the  treatment  has 
neither  principle  nor  system.  Dogs  lay  upon  these  rows 
of  fish,  fowls  fed  undisturbed  off  them,  and.  In  many 
places,  men  slept  peacefully  with  a  number  of  them 
heaped  together,  to  ser\'e  as  pillows  for  their  weary 
heads.  Where  such  neglect  prevails.  It  Is  perhaps  not 
unnatural  that  much  of  the  disease  among  the  Koreans 

247 


KOREA 

should  be  attributed  to  the  dried  fish  which  they  eat  so 
greedily. 

The  trade  in  salted  and  sun-dried  fish  is  extensive  and 
finds  its  way  all  over  the  kingdom;  an  overland  trafiic 
of  considerable  importance  exists  with  the  capital. 
Strings  or  stacks  of  dried  fish  are  to  be  seen  in  every  vil- 
lage. Pack  ponies,  and  coolies  laden  with  loads  of  dried 
fish,  are  met  upon  every  road  in  the  kingdom.  The 
pedestrian  who  "  humps  his  own  swag  "  almost  always 
carries  a  small  stock  with  him.  The  parallel  industry  to 
the  business  of  curing  fish  is  the  operation  of  making  salt 
from  sea  water,  a  pursuit  which  is  conducted  in  a  man- 
ner equally  rough  and  casual.  In  both  of  these  indus- 
tries there  is  a  crying  need  for  simple  technical  instruc- 
tion, as  well  as  for  capital,  the  lack  of  which  hinders  the 
work  from  achieving  any  particular  success.  There  is  so 
much  fish  in  the  sea  along  the  coast,  that,  if  the  catches 
were  properly  treated,  the  beginning  of  a  prosperous  ex- 
port trade  could  be  readily  laid.  At  the  present  only  a 
bare  sufl^ciency  Is  secured,  the  days  of  prosperity  not  yet 
having  begun  to  dawn.  The  Industry  is  completely 
paralysed  by  the  exactions  of  the  ofl'icials;  the  fishermen, 
like  the  peasants,  knowing  only  too  well  that  an  Immu- 
nity from  the  demands  of  the  Yamen  is  found  only  in  a 
condition  of  extreme  poverty. 

Many  fishing  villages  were  passed  through  In  the 
journey  from  the  Diamond  Mountains.  Each  seemed 
to  reflect  the  other,  the  sole  difference  between  them 
lying  in  their  size,  the  number  of  fishing-boats  drawn  up 

248 


FISHING   AND    FILTH 

on  the  beach,  the  strength  and  density  of  their  smells. 
The  poverty  and  squalor  of  these  hamlets  was  astonish- 
ing. The  people  seemed  without  spirit,  content  to  live 
an  Idle,  slatternly  existence  in  sleeping,  yawning,  and 
eating  by  turns.  Despite  offers  of  payment.  It  was  Im- 
possible to  secure  their  services  in  a  day's  fishing, 
although  they  generally  admitted  that  the  boats,  nets, 
and  lines  were  not  otherwise  engaged.  As  the  outcome 
of  this  spirit  of  Indifference  among  the  natives,  Japa- 
nese fishermen  are  rapidly  securing  for  themselves  the 
fishing-grounds  off  the  coast.  Unless  these  dreary,  medi- 
tative, and  dirty  people  arouse  themselves  soon,  the  busi- 
ness of  fishing  In  their  own  waters  will  have  passed  alto- 
gether from  their  hands.  The  Japanese  catch  fish  at  all 
seasons;  the  Koreans  at  one  only — when  it  suits  them. 
They  have  consequently  a  diminishing  Influence  In  a 
trade  so  exceedingly  profitable  that  some  ten  thousand 
Japanese  fishing-boats  subsist  by  It. 

The  filthy  condition  of  the  villages  renders  any  stay 
In  them  perilous.  It  is  wiser  to  camp  beyond  them  In 
the  open.  It  was  my  misfortune  to  stay  In  several,  but 
in  the  village  of  Wha-ding,  seventy-five  li  from  Won- 
san,  the  virulence  and  variety  of  the  Insects  surpassed  all 
my  experience  in  Australia,  America,  Africa,  or  Asia. 
Fleas  were  everywhere ;  they  floated  through  the  atmos- 
phere, much  as  the  north-west  winds  of  New  Zealand 
and  the  hot  winds  of  Africa  drive  particles  of  fine  sand 
through  the  air.  In  this  case,  however,  nothing  re- 
mained without  Its  thin  penetrating  covering  of  fleas. 

249 


KOREA 

One  night  in  Wha-ding  stands  out  as  the  most  awful  of 
these  experiences.  It  was  impossible  to  stand;  it  was 
impossible  to  sit;  sleep  was  out  of  the  question.  We 
shook  our  clothes;  we  bathed  and  washed  and  pow- 
dered. Every  effort  was  a  torture,  and  each  precaution 
increased  the  ironies  of  the  situation.  To  add  to  the 
plagues  of  this  accursed  place,  we  were  deafened  by  the 
ear-splitting  incantations  of  a  sorcerer,  who  had  been 
hired  by  the  proprietor  of  the  village  inn  to  exorcise  a 
devil  that  had  bewitched  him.  We  wondered,  after- 
wards, whether  this  accounted  for  the  damnable  activity 
among  the  vermin.  After  a  futile  attempt  to  come  to 
terms  with  the  magician  by  bribery  and  corruption 
through  the  medium  of  my  interpreter,  it  was  arranged 
that  one  of  the  grooms  should  represent  the  evil  spirit. 
He  passed  out  into  the  desolation  of  the  night  and 
howled  plaintively,  while  we,  having  collected  the  elders 
and  the  necromancer,  solemnly  fired  our  revolvers  into 
the  darkness  at  the  departing  spirit.  Unfortunately,  we 
did  not  convince  the  wizard  that  the  devil  had  been 
expelled.  It  was  not  until,  losing  my  temper  and  my 
reason  together,  I  dropped  his  gongs  and  cymbals  down 
a  well,  depositing  him  in  it  after  them,  that  we  were 
rid  of  the  agonies  of  this  additional  nuisance. 


250 


I 


CHAPTER   XXI 

Drought—Starvation— Inland  disturbances— Rainfall    and 

disease 

T  is  difficult  for  us  in  England  to  understand  how 
far-reaching  may  be  the  evils,  resulting  from  the 
complete  failure  of  the  rainfall,  in  countries  where  the 
population  relies  upon  it  for  their  daily  bread.    A  brief 
mention,  in  the  Press,  of  the  lateness  of  the  monsoon 
gives  no  sign  of  the  anxiety  with  which  many  miUions 
of  people  are  regarding  the  approaching  harvest.    Wa- 
ter means  life  to  the  rice-fields,  and  a  drought  implies, 
not  alone  the  failure  of  a  staple  crop,  but  famine,  with 
disorder  and  starvation,  disease  and  death,  as  its  accom- 
paniments.    A  drought  in  the  rice-fields  makes  a  holo- 
caust of  the  people  in  the  winter.     The  forces  of  law 
and  order  at  the  disposal  of  the  Government  of  India 
place  some  restraint  upon  the  populace.     In  the  Far 
East,  where  the  civil  administration  is  incompetent  to 
deal  with  the  exigencies  of  the  situation,  and  the  sys- 
tematic dispensation  of  relief  is  unknown,  the  decima- 
tion of  the  population  and  the  complete  upheaval  of  the 
social  fabric  follows  closely  upon  the  break-down  in 
nature.    Indirectly,  too,  the  consequences  of  famine  in 
India  prove  this. 

251  .      , 


KOREA 

« 

An  even  more  emphatic  evidence  of  the  effects  of  a 
drought,  where  the  population  live  upon  the  rice  crop, 
is  afforded  by  the  appalling  loss  of  life  and  the  grave 
eruption  of  disorder,  which  took  place  In  Korea  as  the 
consequence  of  the  famine  in  1901.  Widespread  ruin 
overtook  the  country ;  the  inland  districts  were  thronged 
with  mobs  of  desperate  people.  Persons,  normally 
peace-loving  and  law-abiding,  banded  together  to  harass 
the  country-side,  in  the  hope  of  extorting  sufficient  food 
to  keep  their  families  and  themselves  from  starvation. 
Hunger  drove  whole  communities  from  the  villages  to 
the  towns,  where  no  provision  for  their  welfare  existed. 
Anarchy  prevailed  throughout  the  country,  the  dire 
needs  of  the  population  goading  them  to  desperation.  A 
horde  of  beggars  invaded  the  capital.  Deeds  of  vio- 
lence made  the  streets  of  Seoul  unsafe  after  darkness, 
and  bandits  carried  on  their  depredations  openly  in  the 
Metropolitan  Province.  From  a  peaceful  and  happy 
land  of  sunshine  and  repose,  Korea  was  transformed.  In 
a  few  months,  into  a  wilderness  of  misery,  poverty,  and 
unrest. 

The  measures  for  relief  were  quite  Inadequate,  and 
although  rice  was  imported,  large  numbers  of  the  peo- 
ple, lacking  the  money  with  which  to  buy  it,  starved  to 
death.  The  absence  of  an  efficient  organisation  In  the 
face  of  this  further  disaster  Increased  the  confusion. 
Before  any  arrangements  could  be  made  for  their  re- 
lief, several  thousands  had  died.  More  than  20,000 
destitute  people  were  discovered  In  Seoul,  out  of  a  popu- 

252 


DROUGHT 

lation  of  rather  less  than  200,000.  Reports  from  the 
provincial  centres  disclosed  a  relapse  into  a  state  of 
absolute  savagery  in  many  rural  districts.  Famine, 
pestilence,  and  death  stalked  abroad  in  Korea  for 
months,  and  many,  who  escaped  starvation,  lost  their 
lives  subsequently  in  the  great  wave  of  disease  which 
swept  over  the  land. 

It  is  impossible  to  believe  that  the  famine  would 
have  assumed  its  late  proportions  had  the  Government 
of  Korea  maintained  its  embargo  against  the  exporta- 
tion of  cereals  from  the  country.    There  can  be  no  doubt 
that  the  withdrawal  of  this  prohibition  contributed  to 
the  scarceness  of  the  food-stuffs  which  were  procurable 
by  the  people,   when  their  straits  were  most   severe. 
Mortality  returns   from  the  areas   devastated  by  the 
famine  prove  that  the  welfare  of  more  than  one  million 
persons  was  affected.     The  action  of  Japan,  therefore, 
in  insisting  upon  the  suspension  of  the  prohibition  in 
order  that  the  interests  of  some  half-dozen  Japanese  rice 
merchants  might  not  suffer,  deserves  the  utmost  con- 
demnation.    The  primary  responsibility  for  this  great 
loss  of  life  rests  entirely  with  the  Japanese  Government. 
In  terrorising  the  Government  of  Korea  into  an  act,  the 
consequences  of  which  brought  death  to  one  million  peo- 
ple, the  Japanese  Government  committed  themselves  to 
a  policy  which  traversed  alike  the  dictates  of  reason  and 
common  sense,  and  outraged  every  principle  of  human- 
ity.   The  impartial  observer  must  hold  Korea  guiltless 
in  this  matter.    It  is,  indeed,  deplorable  that  the  vehe- 

253 


KOREA 

ment  opposition  of  the  Korean  Government  was  not  re- 
spected. Nevertheless,  the  incident  is  valuable,  as  an 
illustration  of  the  objectionable  attitude  which  distin- 
guishes the  Government  of  Japan  in  its  relations  with 
Korea. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  drought  the  inhabitants  of 
Seoul  believed  that  the  Rain  God  was  incensed.  The 
Emperor  and  his  Court  offered  expiatory  sacrifices  upon 
three  occasions.  As  the  rains  were  still  withheld  a 
period  of  penance  was  proclaimed,  in  which  prayers  and 
fastings  were  ordained,  the  populace  ceasing  from  every 
form  of  labour  and  relapsing  into  a  condition  of  supreme 
idleness.  Unhappily,  while  the  great  mass  of  the  people 
refrained  from  work,  the  Emperor  continued  to  employ 
many  hundreds  of  labourers  upon  the  construction  of  the 
new  Palace  buildings.  This  proceeding  was  held  by  the 
superstitious  subjects  of  His  Majesty  to  account  for  the 
singular  inclemency  of  the  Rain  Demon,  and  some  anx- 
iety was  felt  in  the  capital  lest  the  usual  calm  of  the 
city  should  be  broken  by  riots.  These  horrors  were 
spared  to  Seoul,  however,  by  the  fortuitous  visitation 
of  a  passing  shower.  Men  and  women  resumed  their 
toil,  rejoicing  in  the  belief  that  the  evil  influences  had 
been  overcome.  It  was,  however,  but  a  brief  respite 
only  that  was  granted.  In  a  short  time  the  drought  pre- 
vailed throughout  the  land,  drymg  up  the  rice-fields, 
scorching  the  pastures,  and  withering  the  crops.  Under 
this  baneful  visitation,  the  circumstances  of  the  people 
became  very  straitened.     Hundreds  were   reduced  to 

254 


STARVATION 

feeding  off  the  wild  roots  and  grass  of  the  wayside,  and 
isolated  cases  of  cannibalism  were  reported. 

The  exceptional  character  of  the  drought  lends  inter- 
est to  the  hydrometrical  records  for  Chemulpo  from 
1887  to  the  middle  of  1901,  which  were  forwarded  to 
the  bureau  bythe  correspondent  of  the  Physical  Observa- 
tory, St.  Petersburg.  The  rain-fall  given  is  for  the  years 
1887  to  1900,  inclusive,  and  the  first  half  of  1901 ;  the 
snow-fall  is  reduced  to  the  proportion  of  water  which 
the  melted  snow  would  make.  Professor  H.  Hulbert 
has  pointed  out,  however,  that  in  estimating  what  is  or 
what  is  not  a  proper  amount  of  rain,  it  is  necessary  to 
know  in  what  season  of  the  year  the  rain  has  fallen. 
Thirty  inches  of  rain  in  November  would  be  of  less 
value  to  the  rice-fields  than  half  that  amount  if  it  fell 
in  June.  In  the  cultivation  of  rice,  rain  must  fall  at  the 
proper  time.  Otherwise  it  is  valueless,  and,  although 
adding  to  the  actual  measurement  of  the  fall,  a  very 
considerable  deluge,  under  these  conditions,  would  be  of 
no  material  advantage  to  agricultural  interests. 


2SS 


KOREA 

HYDROMETRICAL   RECORD 


Years 

Rainfall 

Snowfall 

Total 

Fog 

Rain 

Snow 

inches 

1887 

30.86 

2.00 

32.86 

13d    3h 

I9d  I7h 

4d     2h 

1888 

20.91 

2.15 

23.06 

i4d     5h 

I  2d     6h 

3d     3h 

1889 

28.18 

0.91 

29.09 

25d  I3h 

25d    5h 

5d    9h 

1890 

47.00 

1.06 

48.06 

I  2d  i8h 

27d  loh 

od  64h 

189I 

41.04 

1.66 

41.70 

13d     5h 

3od  2oh 

3d     7h 

1892 

34-04 

1.20 

35-24 

I  5d  2oh 

i6d  I  oh 

4d    6h 

1893 

50.64 

3-55 

54.19 

3id     5h 

36d     6h 

8d  iih 

1894. 

31.81 

0.64 

32.45 

33d  i8h 

2  id     9h 

id    8h 

1895 

31.88 

2.06 

33-94 

32d    7h 

29d  I  ih 

6d  i7h 

1896 

31.08 

5-15 

36.23 

5id    7h 

27d     oh 

2d    oh 

1897 

48.35 

3-23 

51.58 

24d     5h 

3id  I7h 

4d  i8h 

1898 

37.80 

4-73 

42.53 

3  id  I4h 

29d  I9h 

5di5h 

1899 

25.07 

2.05 

27.12   I 

i8d  I9h 

id    3h 

1900 

29.14 

0.83 

29.97 

2ld       2h 

od  2oh 

1901 

7.09 

0.06 

7-15 

yd     5h 

3d     7h 

2d    oh 

I  give  also,  the  rain- fall  during  the  years  1 898-1901, 
at  the  period  when  a  plenteous  rain  is  of  supreme  im- 
portance to  the  rice  industry: 


Year 

June 

July 

August 

Total 

1898 

4.5 

10. 0 

I  I.O 

25-5 

1899 

8.5 

7.5 

6.7 

22.7 

1900 

2.0 

6.2 

4.5 

12.7 

1 90 1 

0.3 

2.7 

I.I 

4.1 

In  a  rice-growing  country  such  as  this  is,  it  is  essential 
that  an  adequate  supply  of  rain  should  fall  during  the 
three  summer  months  to  allow  of  the  seed-rice  being 
transplanted  and  to  ensure  the  maturing  of  the  grain. 
In  1 90 1,  owing  to  the  lack  of  water,  the  bulk  of  the 

256 


RAINFALL    AND    DISEASE 

seed-rice  was  never  transplanted  at  all.  It  simply  with- 
ered away. 

It  is,  of  course,  inevitable  that  one  of  the  immediate 
results  of  famine  should  be  a  general  increase  of  mor- 
tality throughout  the  country.  The  impoverished  con- 
dition, to  which  so  many  thousands  of  Koreans  were 
reduced,  weakened  their  constitutions  so  seriously  that, 
in  many  cases,  even  those  who  were  fortunate  enough  to 
escape  starvation  found  their  powers  fatally  impaired. 
There  were  many  whose  inanition  and  general  debility, 
resulting  from  their  deprivations,  had  rendered  them 
peculiarly  susceptible  to  disease.  More  particularly  was 
this  the  case  in  the  inland  districts. 

Lender  normal  conditions,  malaria  is,  perhaps,  the 
most  common  disease  in  Korea.  It  prevails  in  all  parts 
of  the  country,  but  it  is  specifically  localised  in  sections 
where  there  are  numerous  rice-fields.  SmaU-pox  is 
nearly  always  present,  breaking  out  in  epidemic  form 
every  few  years.  Nearly  all  adults,  and  most  children 
over  ten  years,  will  be  found  to  have  had  it.  Leprosy 
is  fairly  prevalent  in  the  southern  provinces,  but  it 
spreads  very  slowly.  While  this  disease  presents  all  the 
characteristics  described  in  the  text-books,  the  almost 
imperceptible  Increase,  which  distinguishes  Its  existence 
in  Korea,  is  strong  presumptive  evdence  that  it  is  non- 
infectious. 

The  great  enemy  of  health  Is  the  tubercle  bacIUus. 
The  want  of  ventilation,  the  absence  of  sanitation,  and 
the  smaUness  of  the  houses,  foster  this  little  germ.    Tu- 

257 


KOREA 

bercular  and  joint  diseases  are  common;  also  fistula, 
hare-lip,  diseases  of  the  eye,  throat  and  ear.  The  most 
common  disease  of  the  eye  is  cataract;  of  the  ear,  sup- 
puration of  the  middle  drum,  in  the  great  majority  of 
cases  the  result  of  small-pox  in  childhood.  Cases  of 
nasal  polypi  are  also  very  numerous.  Hysteria  is  fairly 
common,  while  epilepsy  and  paralysis  are  among  other 
nervous  disorders  which  are  encountered.  Indigestion 
is  almost  a  national  curse,  the  habit  of  eating  rapidly 
large  quantities  of  boiled  rice  and  raw  fish  promoting 
this  scourge.  Toothache  is  less  frequent  than  in  other 
countries;  diphtheria  and  typhoid  are  very  rare,  and 
scarlet  fever  scarcely  exists.  Typhus,  malarial  remit- 
tent fever,  and  relapsing  fever  are  not  uncommon. 
Venereal  disease  is  about  as  general  as  it  used  to  be  In 
England. 

In  short,  there  is  a  preponderance  of  diseases  which 
result  from  filthy  habits,  as  also  of  those  produced  by 
the  indifferent  qualities  of  the  food,  and  the  small  and 
overcrowded  houses.  Mose  of  the  diseases  common  to 
humanity  present  themselves  for  treatment  In  Korea. 


258 


CHAPTER   XXII 

The  missionary  question — Ethics  of  Christianity — Cant  and 
commerce — The  necessity  for  restraint 

THE  history  of  missionary  enterprise  In  Korea 
abounds  in  illustrations  of  the  remarkable 
manner  in  which  French  missionaries  may  be  relied 
upon  to  offer  up  their  lives  for  their  country.  It  may 
be  cynical  to  say  so,  yet  there  Is  much  reason  to  believe 
that  the  Roman  Catholic  priests  In  the  Far  East  of  to- 
day are  the  agents  provocateurs  of  their  Government. 
They  promote  anarchy  and  outrage,  even  encompassing 
their  own  deaths,  whenever  the  Interests  of  their  coun- 
try demand  It.  From  the  beginnings  of  Christianity 
in  China  they  have  wooed  the  glory  of  martyrdom,  and 
they  have  repeated  the  process  In  Korea. 

Christianity  made  Its  way  Into  Korea  about  1777, 
by  the  chance  arrival  of  a  packet  of  translations  In  Chi- 
nese of  the  works  of  the  Jesuits  In  Pekln.  From  this 
small  beginning  the  Ideas  spread,  until  the  King's  Pre- 
ceptor was  compelled  to  fulminate  a  public  document 
against  this  new  belief.  Finding  this  Insufficient,  ex- 
amples were  made  of  prominent  enthusiasts.  Many 
were  tortured ;  and  others  condemned  to  perpetual  exile. 

259 


KOREA 

Persecution  continued  until  1787;  but  the  work  of 
proselytism  proceeded,  despite  the  Injurious  attentions 
which  converts  received  from  the  public  executioners. 

The  first  attempt  of  a  foreign  missionary  to  enter 
Korea  was  made  in  179 1.  It  was  not  until  three  years 
later,  however,  that  any  Western  evangelist  succeeded 
in  evading  the  vigilance  of  the  border  sentinels.  Where 
one  came  others  naturally  followed,  undeterred  by  the 
violent  deaths  which  so  many  of  these  intrepid  Chris- 
tians had  suffered.  While  the  French  missionaries  were 
prosecuting  their  perilous  labours.  In  the  face  of  the 
undisguised  hostility  of  the  great  proportion  of  the  peo- 
ple, and  losing  their  lives  as  the  price  of  this  work,  the 
walls  of  Isolation  which  Korea  had  built  around  her- 
self were  gradually  sapped.  Ships  from  France,  Russia 
and  Great  Britain  touched  her  shores  during  their  ex- 
plorations and  trading  ventures  in  the  Yellow  Sea. 
Under  the  association  of  Ideas  which  sprang  from  the 
appearance  of  these  strange  ships,  the  Koreans  grew 
accustomed  to  the  notion  that  their  world  was  not 
limited  by  the  resources  of  their  own  country  and  the 
more  distant  territories  of  China.  However,  judging 
the  sailors  who  fell  Into  their  hands  by  the  standards 
of  the  French  priests,  who  had  set  every  law  In  the  land 
at  defiance,  they  at  once  killed  them.  This  practice 
continued  until  1866,  when  word  reached  the  Admiral 
of  a  French  squadron  at  Tientsin  of  the  slaughter  of 
his  compatriots  In  Korea.  Upon  receipt  of  the  news, 
an  expedition  was  prepared,  of  itself  an  early  manlfesta- 

260 


THE    MISSIONARY   QUESTION 

tion  of  that  policy  by  which  the  French  Government 
is  inspired  in  its  deahngs  with  missionaries  and  mission- 
ary questions  in  countries,  the  development  of  whose 
geographical  or  industrial  peculiarities  may  be  turned 
to  advantage. 

For  many  centuries  the  land  was  without  any  ac- 
cepted religious  doctrine.  Buddhism,  which  existed  for 
one  thousand  years  before  the  present  dynasty  came  to 
the  throne,  had  fallen  Into  disfavour ;  the  tenets  of  Con- 
fucius did  not  completely  satisfy  the  minds  of  the  upper 
classes,  and  Shamanism  was  the  worship  of  the  more 
primitive  masses.  The  moment  was  ripe  for  the  in- 
troduction of  a  more  practical  philosophy,  and  in  time, 
as  the  gospel  of  Christianity  spread,  opposition  to  the 
great  creed  of  humanltarlanism  lessened.  Toleration 
of  the  many  phases  of  Western  belief  is  now  general, 
the  Korean  finding  In  the  profession  of  Christianity  an 
easy  means  of  evading  the  exactions  of  the  officials. 
Nevertheless,  the  diffusion  of  Christianity  is  not  unat- 
tended with  bloodshed  and  disaster.  Apart  from  this 
drawback  to  the  propagation  of  Christian  beliefs  in 
Korea,  it  may  be  doubted  whether  the  methods  of  the 
various  missionary  bodies  bear  the  impress  of  that  spirit 
of  charity  which  should  Illustrate  their  teaching.  With- 
out impugning  the  Individual  attainments  of  any  of  the 
many  missionary  groups  who  administer  to  the  needs 
of  the  Koreans,  I  find  It  difficult  to  affirm  that  the  prin- 
ciples  of  self-abnegation  so  manifest  In  the  lives  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  priests  and  the  workers  of  the  Church 

261 


KOREA 

of  England  Mission,  are  equally  In  evidence  In  the 
comfortable  existence  which  Is  led  by  the  well-paid 
attaches  of  the  American  Mission  Boards.  The  French 
priests  live  in  abject  poverty;  striving  to  identify  them- 
selves with  the  conditions  of  their  flock,  they  accept 
neither  holiday  nor  reward  as  compensation  for  their 
services.  In  this  bare  comparison  of  the  principles  of 
ministration,  I  do  not  wish,  at  the  moment,  to  venture 
into  the  domain  of  controversy,  but  merely  to  convey 
some  Impression  of  the  competing  systems  of  procedure. 
The  Church  of  England  Mission,  which  has  become 
known  as  the  English  Mission,  under  the  direction  of 
Bishop  Corfe  has  adopted  a  system  of  communism.  The 
expenses  of  board,  lodging,  clothing,  laundry  and  fuel 
are  met  from  a  common  fund,  quarterly  remitted  from 
the  Mission  Treasurer  to  the  responsible  head  of  each 
Mission  House.  In  proportion  to  the  number  of  resi- 
dents, the  expenditure  is  returnable  upon  a  pro  rata 
calculation  of  about  £70  per  head  per  annum.  This 
estimate  Includes  the  cost  of  the  male  staff.  The  pro- 
portionate rate  of  expenditure  In  respect  of  the  lady 
workers  of  the  English  Mission  Is  one-third  of  this 
annual  disbursement  less.  The  depots  of  the  Mission 
are  situated  at  Seoul,  Chemulpo,  Mok-po,  and  Kang- 
wha ;  In  addition  to  the  stations  in  Korea,  a  chaplaincy 
Is  maintained  In  New-chwang.  The  chief  centre  of 
activity  of  this  Mission  is  upon  the  island  of  Kang-wha. 
The  task  of  improving  the  condition  of  the  very  poor, 
by  means  of  education,  kindness  and  patience,  proceeds 

262 


ETHICS   OF   CHRISTIANITY 

quietly  at  Chemulpo  and  Seoul  too,  where  particular 
attention  is  given  to  the  welfare  of  the  sick.  At  one 
time,  there  were  important  dispensary  and  hospital  in- 
stitutes in  these  places,  the  medical  establishment  at 
Chemulpo,  however,  is  now  abandoned. 

The  members  of  this  Mission  endure  no  little  priva- 
tion in  the  primitive  simplicity  of  their  surroundings. 
Their  services,  on  the  other  hand,  display  much  un- 
necessary pomp ;  and  the  white,  full-skirted  cassock  with 
rough  hempen  girdle,  which  they  wear  in  public  and 
private,  emphasises  their  ritualistic  tendencies,  and  is,  to 
my  mind,  somewhat  of  an  affectation.  Nevertheless, 
in  their  daily  practice,  those  associated  with  the  Church 
of  England  Mission  in  Korea  set  before  themselves  that 
standard  of  idealism  in  missionary  enterprise  which  is 
represented  by  the  unnecessary  sacrifices,  the  sublime 
heroism,  and  fortitude  distinguishing  the  priests  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  a  standard,  I  am  compelled  to 
admit,  that  other  missions  in  the  Far  East — American, 
English,  Scotch,  and  Irish — appear  incapable  of  realis- 
ing. 

The  American  missionary  in  the  Far  East  is  a  curious 
creature.  He  represents  a  union  of  devices  which  have 
made  him  a  factor  of  considerable  commercial  impor- 
tance. American  missionaries  in  Korea  were  formerly 
closely  associated  with  the  more  important  export  houses 
in  the  leading  industrial  centres  of  America.  Owing  to 
diplomatic  representation  this  practical  demonstration 
of  Western  superiority  Is  no  longer  openly  Indulged. 

263 


KOREA 

In  Seoul,  however,  an  American  missionary  inconsid- 
erately receives  paying  guests,  causing  a  manifest  loss 
of  business  to  the  Station  Hotel;  in  Won-san,  another 
exploits  his  orchard.  As  a  class  they  are  necessarily 
newspaper  correspondents  and  professional  photogra- 
phers; upon  rare  occasions — and  here  I  refer  especially 
to  a  small  coterie  of  American  missionaries  in  Seoul— 
they  are  the  scholarly  students  of  the  history,  manners, 
customs  and  language  of  the  country  in  which  they 
happen  to  be  placed. 

The  American  missionary  has  a  salary  which  fre- 
quently exceeds  £200  a  year,  and  is  invariably  pleas- 
antly supplemented  by  additional  allowances.  Houses 
and  servants  are  provided  free,  or  grants  are  made  for 
house  rent ;  there  is  a  provision  for  the  education  of  the 
children,  and  an  annual  capitation  payment  Is  made  for 
each  child.  As  a  class,  American  missionaries  have 
large  families,  who  live  in  comparative  idleness  and 
luxury.  In  Korea,  they  own  the  most  attractive  and 
commodious  houses  in  the  foreign  settlements,  and 
appear  to  me  to  extract  from  their  surroundings  the 
maximum  of  profit  for  the  minimum  of  labour.  I  do 
not  know  whether  it  Is  with  the  permission  of  the  execu- 
tive officers  of  the  American  Mission  Boards  that  their 
representatives  combine  commerce  with  their  mission 
to  the  heathen.  When  a  missionary  devotes  no  little 
portion  of  his  time  to  literary  labours,  to  the  care  of  an 
insurance  agency,  to  the  needs  of  a  fruit  farm,  or  to  the 
manifold  exigencies  of  casual  commerce,  it  seems  to  me 

264 


THE    NECESSITY    FOR    RESTRAINT 

that  the  Interests  of  those  who  sit  in  darkness  must 
suffer. 

American  mission  agents  have  made  Korea  their  pecu- 
liar field.  Converts,  who  prattle  of  Christianity  in  a 
marked  American  accent,  are  among  the  features  of  the 
capital  in  the  twentieth  century.  Mission  centres,  which 
have  been  created  in  a  number  of  places,  now  show  signs 
of  prosperity.  They  enlist  no  little  practical  sympathy 
and  support  from  the  native  population.  The  self-sup- 
porting character  of  much  of  the  missionary  work  in 
Korea  bears  out  the  spirit  of  toleration  which  distin- 
guishes the  attitude  of  the  people  towards  the  propa- 
ganda. It  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  the  work  of  the 
msisionaries  is  agreeable  to  all  shades  of  native  opinion. 
Riots  and  bloodshed  disfigure  the  path  of  proselytism, 
the  credulity  of  the  natives  entailing  heavy  sacrifices  of 
life.  The  disturbances  which  have  thus  marked  the 
spread  of  Christianity  in  Korea,  notably  in  the  anti- 
Christian  rising  in  Quelpart,  a  few  months  ago,  are  due 
to  the  jealousy  with  which  the  heathen  mass  of  the 
population  regard  the  protection  from  oflUcial  rapacity, 
enjoyed  by  those  who  accept  The  Light. 

In  the  case  of  Quelpart,  this  feeling  of  animosity, 
and  the  immunity  from  taxation  which  the  French 
priests  gave  to  their  following,  created  an  intolerable 
position.  Anarchy  swept  over  the  island,  and  some  six 
hundred  believers  were  put  summarily  to  death.  What- 
ever may  be  the  compensating  advantages  of  this  mar- 
tyrdom,  the   reckless   and  profligate   sacrifice   of   life, 

265 


KOREA 

which  missionary  Indiscretion  In  the  Far  East  has  pro- 
moted, Is  an  outrage  upon  modern  civilisation.  We 
have  passed  through  one  terrible  anti-Christian  upheaval 
in  China,  and,  If  we  wish  to  avoid  another  such  mani- 
festation, It  Is  necessary  to  superintend  all  forms  of  mis- 
sionary enterprise  more  closely.  This,  however,  can  be 
done  only  by  legislative  supervision,  imposing  restraint 
in  the  direction  which  recent  events  have  indicated.  It 
is  imperative  that  certain  measures  should  be  adopted  in 
missionary  work  which  will  ensure  the  safety  of  the 
Individual  zealot,  and  be  agreeable  to  the  general  com- 
fort of  the  community.  It  is  unfortunate,  but  inevitable, 
that  such  reforms  must  be  radical.  The  violence  of  mis- 
sionary enterprise  during  recent  years  has  been  alto- 
gether unbridled.  The  great  activity  of  the  different 
societies,  resulting  from  their  unrestricted  liberty,  has 
recoiled  most  fatally  upon  the  more  Indefatigable,  as 
well  as  upon  the  heads  of  many  wholly  Innocent  of  any 
unwarrantable  religious  persecution.  The  time  has 
come,  therefore,  when  vigorous  restrictions  should 
chasten  this  vigorous,  polemical  proselytlsm.  The  prac- 
tice of  scattering  missionaries  broadcast  over  the  interior 
of  these  Far  Eastern  countries  should  not  continue;  the 
assent  of  the  local  Consul  and  a  representative  council  of 
the  Foreign  Ministers  should  be  required  In  every  case. 
Moreover,  it  would  be  wiser.  If,  under  no  conceivable 
circumstances,  single  women  were  permitted  to  prose- 
lytise beyond  the  carefully  prescribed  treaty  limits  of  the 
different  settlements.    Again,  missionaries  with  families, 

266 


THE    NECESSITY   FOR   RESTRAINT 

as  well  as  single  women,  should  not  be  allowed  to  live 
beyond  the  areas  of  these  neutral  zones. 

These  restraints  upon  missionary  labours  will,  of 
course,  be  resented.  If  the  total  number  of  lives  which 
have  been  lost  In  Korea,  China,  and  Japan,  by  the  Inter- 
ference of  Western  missionaries,  were  published,  their 
vast  aggregate  would  reveal  to  the  unthinking  masses 
of  the  public  how  urgent  Is  the  need  for  strong  action. 
Such  restraint  Is  morally  justifiable  by  the  appalling 
massacres  with  which  the  world  Is  now  familiar.  The 
blind  perseverance  of  the  missionary  has  frequently 
brought  about  the  simultaneous  baptism  and  crucifixion 
of  the  convert.  What  more  does  the  fanatical  enthu- 
siast wish  than  that  some  one  should  be  thus  doubly 
glorified  by  his  means?  The  increasing  death-roll 
among  masters  and  pupils  supplies  the  only  necessary 
argument  for  immediate  rectification  of  the  entire  sys- 
tem of  missionary  enterprise. 


267 


CHAPTER   XXIII 

Inland  journeying — Ponies,  servants,  interpreters,  food  and 
accommodation — What  to  take  and  how  to  take  it — Up 
the  Han  River,  frolic  and  leisure 

TRAVELLING  in  the  inland  regions  of  Korea  is 
not  the  most  comfortable  pastime  which  can  be 
devised,  although  it  has  many  attractions.  The  lively 
bustle  of  the  roads  gradually  gives  place  to  the  passing 
panorama  of  the  scenery,  which  presents  in  constant 
variation  a  landscape  of  much  natural  beauty,  with  hills 
and  meadows,  bush-clad  mountains  and  rice-fields, 
rivers,  lakes,  and  raging  torrents  as  prominent  features. 
The  shifting  camp  soon  leaves  the  outposts  of  civilisa- 
tion behind.  This  slow  passing  into  the  wilderness 
gives  a  subtle  charm  to  the  journey.  Each  turn  of  the 
track  emphasises  the  desolation  of  the  ever-changing 
scene.  The  wide  expanse  of  plains  and  valleys  makes 
way  for  the  depths  of  wild  and  gloomy  forests,  where 
the  ragged  mountain-paths  are  slippery  and  dangerous. 
The  ozone  of  a  new  life  pervades  the  air.  There  is  no 
doubt  that  such  moments  seem,  for  the  time,  the  most 
perfect  existence  imaginable.  Freedom  is  untrammelled 
by  a  care ;  the  world  for  the  day  is  comprised  within  a 
space  as  great  as  can  be  seen.     Upon  the  morrow.  Its 

268 


INLAND   JOURNEYING 

limitation  is  only  a  little  more  remote.  The  birds  of  the 
air,  the  beasts  of  the  field,  the  game  in  the  bushes,  sup- 
ply the  provender  of  the  camp.  Villages  provide  rice, 
vegetables  and  eggs,  the  hill-side  springs  give  water,  the 
rivers  permit  bathing.  The  air  is  pure,  and  the  whole 
aspect  of  life  is  beautiful  and  joyous. 

At  the  end  of  a  trying  day,  one,  perhaps,  marred  by 
an  accident  to  an  animal,  trouble  with  the  native  ser- 
vants, rain,  fog,  or  the  difficulties  of  the  track,  there  Is 
the  evening  camp.  Those  hours  of  rest  and  Idleness, 
when  the  horses  are  fed  and  groomed,  the  packs  un- 
swung,  the  camp-beds  slung  beneath  the  mosquito  cur- 
tains, and  the  evening  meal  prepared,  are  full  of  a  su- 
preme sensation  of  contentment.  I  have  always  loved 
these  moments  of  peace,  accepting  what  they  brought  as 
the  best  that  life  held  for  me  at  the  time.  At  such  an 
hour  the  refinements  of  civilisation  and  the  restrictions 
of  convention  seem  puerile  enough.  Moreover,  there  is 
much  material  benefit  to  be  derived  from  such  an  under- 
taking. The  trials  and  difficulties  develop  stability  of 
character;  the  risks  and  dangers  promote  resource  and 
self-reliance.  There  Is  much  to  be  learnt  from  this  con- 
tact with  a  human  nature  differing  so  radically  from  the 
prescribed  types  and  patterns  of  the  Western  standard. 
There  Is  something  new  In  every  phase  of  the  experi- 
ence. If  It  be  only  an  impression,  such  as  I  have  en- 
deavoured to  trace  in  these  few  lines,  it  is  one  which 
lingers  In  the  mind  long  after  other  memories  have 
faded. 

269 


KOREA 

Preparation  for  an  Inland  journey  of  any  extent  takes 
a  considerable  time;  ponies  have  to  be  hired,  servants 
engaged,  and  interpreters  secured.  It  is  as  well  to  per- 
sonally examine  the  pack  ponies  which  are  to  carry  the 
loads.  Koreans  treat  their  animals  shamefully,  and  the 
missionaries  make  no  efforts  to  lighten  the  lot  of  these 
unhappy  beasts.  In  consequence  of  the  carelessness  with 
which  the  ponies  are  treated  by  their  Korean  masters, 
the  poor  little  brutes  suffer  from  back-sores  larger  anS 
more  dreadful  than  anything  I  have  seen  in  any  other 
part  of  the  globe.  If  the  Koreans  could  be  taught  the 
rudiments  of  horse-mastering  and  a  more  humane 
principle  of  loading  and  packing  their  rough  saddles, 
as  well  as  some  practical  veterinary  knowledge,  the  lot 
of  the  unlucky  little  pony  of  the  capital  might  be  soft- 
ened. But  the  spectacle  of  broken  knees,  raw  necks, 
bleeding  backs,  and  sore  heels  which  these  poor  animals 
present,  as  they  pass  in  quick  succession  along  the  streets 
of  Seoul,  Is  revolting.  The  American  missionaries  boast 
so  much  of  their  good  deeds  that  it  seems  strange  that 
they  should  neglect  such  a  crying  evil  as  this.  There  is, 
I  presume,  no  credit  to  be  "  gotten  "  from  alleviating 
the  sufferings  of  a  mere,  broken-down,  Korean  pack 
pony. 

Large  numbers  of  the  pack  ponies  of  Korea  come 
from  Quelpart.  They  are  diminutive  In  size,  little 
larger  than  the  Shetland  breed,  and  rather  smaller  than 
the  Welsh  pony.  They  are  usually  stallions,  given  to 
fighting  and  kicking  amongst  themselves,  and  reputed 

270 


INLAND   JOURNEYING 

savage.  Their  wlldness  is  aggravated  through  a  daily 
irritation  by  the  rough  surfaces  of  their  pack  saddles  of 
the  inflamed  swellings  on  their  backs.  They  endure 
longer  marches  and  shorter  food  allowances  than  almost 
any  other  species  of  horse;  they  are  quick  in  their  gait, 
very  strong,  and  willing,  good  feeders,  and  reveal  ex- 
traordinary obstinacy,  tenacity,  and  patience.  Much  of 
the  pleasure  in  my  travels  in  Korea,  however,  was 
entirely  spoilt  by  the  abominable  neglect  with  which  the 
native  grooms  treated  their  charges.  Their  dreadful 
condition  goaded  one  to  fury,  and  almost  daily  I  remon- 
strated with  one  or  other  of  the  grooms  for  gross 
cruelty.  My  remarks  had  not  the  smallest  effect,  how- 
ever, save  that  they  wore  me  out,  and  in  the  end  I  aban- 
doned my  expeditions  to  avoid  the  horrors  of  such  spec- 
tacles. The  Korean  is  quite  callous  to  the  sufferings  of 
his  animals.  He  will  feed  them  well,  and  he  will  will- 
ingly disturb  himself  at  night  to  prepare  their  food;  but 
he  will  not  allow  ulcerated  and  running  wounds  to  inter- 
fere with  the  daily  work  of  the  poor  beasts.  This  is 
comprehensible;  but  he  will  not,  upon  his  own  initia- 
tive, even  endeavour  to  bridge  the  sore  by  the  tricky 
placing  of  a  pad.  However  bad  the  gathering  may  be, 
on  goes  the  load,  the  agony  of  the  poor  pony  manifest- 
ing itself  in  a  flourish  of  kicks,  bites,  and  squeals. 

In  demonstration  of  this  extreme  callousness  I  may 
mention  this  incident.  Once,  outside  Won-san,  I  saw  a 
Korean  seat  himself  upon  the  side  of  a  stone,  and  lei- 
surely proceed  to  rain  blows  upon  the  head  of  a  dog 

271 


KOREA 

which  he  was  holding,  until  the  poor  thing  collapsed 
insensible.  He  then  beat  it  about  the  ribs,  and  put  the 
body  on  the  embers  of  a  fire.  We  were  several  hundred 
yards  off  when  this  attracted  my  notice ;  but  I  chased  the 
brute  across  two  paddy  stretches,  until  the  heavy  going 
compelled  me  to  abandon  it.  At  a  later  time  I  noticed 
that  the  grooms  were  most  careful  to  dress  the  backs  of 
the  horses  at  our  different  halts,  and  also  to  endeavour 
to  prevent  the  pack  saddles  from  rubbing  the  wounds, 
prompted,  I  have  no  doubt,  to  this  most  desirable  kind- 
liness by  the  lesson  which  they  had  read  between  the 
lines  upon  the  occasion  of  the  dog  incident. 

The  character  of  the  native  followers  who  accompany 
these  journeys  is  a  matter  of  great  importance  to  the 
future  welfare  of  the  traveller.  The  proprietor  of  the 
Station  Hotel,  Seoul,  secured  me  an  excellent  boy. 
Shortly  after  entering  my  service,  an  American  mission- 
ary, who  had  been  hankering  after  the  lad  for  some 
time  before  he  was  brought  to  me,  suborned  him.  He 
deserted  me  upon  the  eve  of  my  second  expedition. 
This  trick  is  seldom  perpetrated  east  of  Suez  between 
Europeans  with  native  servants;  it  is  one  of  the  few 
unwritten  laws  of  the  East  and  observed  everywhere. 
I  reported  the  matter  to  the  American  Minister,  Dr. 
Allen,  but  the  missionary  kept  the  boy.  Servants, 
grooms,  and  a  coolie  of  a  sort,  are  all  necessary  upon 
these  expeditions;  one  groom  to  each  horse  is  a  wise 
allowance.  Koreans  like  to  send  three  horses  to  two 
men;  however,  my  division  is  the  better.     Europeans 

272 


FOOD    AND   ACCOMMODATION 

require  a  body-servant,  who  will  look  after  the  personal 
effects  of  his  master,  and  wait  at  table.  An  Interpreter, 
who  can  speak  Chinese  and  some  European  language, 
either  German,  French,  or  English,  is  invaluable.  It  Is 
safer  In  each  case  to  take  men  who  are  not  converts.  A 
coolie  Is  useful  and  gives  a  httle  variety  to  the  beasts  of 
burden;  he  carries  the  camera,  water-bottles,  and  small 
Impedimenta  of  the  hour.  A  chef  is  not  really  neces- 
sary— my  Interpreter  voluntarily  served  as  cook.  The 
Interpreter  in  any  journey  inland  should  be  mounted ;  It 
saves  considerable  friction  if  the  personal  servants  be 
allowed  to  ride  on  the  baggage  ponies.  Interpreters  re- 
ceive from  thirty  to  forty  dollars  a  month ;  personal  ser- 
vants from  eight  to  twenty  dollars  a  month;  coolies 
from  eight  to  ten  dollars  a  month.  The  hire  for  the 
horses,  with  whom  the  grooms  are  Included,  is  a  dollar  a 
day,  half  the  amount  paid  down  In  advance  upon  the 
day  of  starting.  All  calculations  are  made  In  Korean 
currency.  The  entire  staff,  except  the  horses  and 
grooms.  Is  fed  by  the  traveller.  The  interpreter  takes 
charge  of  the  accounts.  He  will,  if  ordered,  take  down 
the  Chinese  and  Korean  names  of  the  villages,  streams, 
lakes,  valleys,  plains,  mountains  and  roads  which  are 
passed.  This  is  useful;  the  map  of  Korea  is  most  hope- 
lessly out  of  date,  and  by  forwarding  these  names  to 
the  Geographical  Society  some  little  good  is  accom- 
plished. The  Interpreter  will  pay  the  coolies,  grooms, 
and  other  servants  In  debased  currency,  and  charge  the 
account  In  Mexican  dollars,  making  a  profit  of  seventy- 

273 


KOREA 

five  per  cent. ;  he  Is  greedy  and  tenacious  to  the  Interests 
of  his  pocket,  and  he  will  suggest  that  he  requires  a  ser- 
vant. For  this  remark  he  should  be  flogged.  He  will 
muddle  his  accounts  whenever  he  can;  he  will  lose  re- 
ceipts If  he  can  find  no  other  way  of  squeezing.  He  Is 
apparently  an  Innocent,  transparently  honest,  and  de- 
voted to  the  principles  of  sobriety  and  virtue — unless 
there  is  an  opportunity  to  go  the  usual  path.  Under 
every  condition  he  should  be  watched. 

The  Korean  does  not  approach  the  Chinaman  as  a 
body-servant;  he  has  neither  initiative  nor  the  capacity 
for  the  work,  while  he  combines  intemperance,  Immoral- 
ity, and  laziness  In  varying  degrees.  The  master  usually 
ends  by  waiting  upon  his  man.  There  Is,  however,  an 
antidote  for  this  state  of  things.  If  sufficient  point  be 
put  into  the  argument,  and  the  demonstration  be  fur- 
ther enforced  by  an  occasional  kick,  as  circumstances 
may  require,  It  Is  possible  to  convert  a  first-class,  sun- 
loving  wastrel  Into  a  willing,  if  unintelligent,  servant. 
Under  any  conditions,  his  dishonesty  will  be  incor- 
rigible. 

It  is  never  necessary  to  take  any  large  stock  of  pro- 
visions when  travelling  in  Korea.  Eggs,  fowl,  fresh 
fish,  fruit,  matches,  tobacco,  vegetables,  and  crushed  rice 
flour  can  be  procured  at  any  village  in  large  quantities. 
The  inhabitants  will  perhaps  declare  that  there  are  no 
such  things  In  the  village ;  that  they  are  miserably  poor. 
The  village  usually  bears  the  stamp  of  Its  condition 
pretty  plainly,  and  I  found  that  where  this  occurred  the 

274 


FOOD   AND    ACCOMMODATION 

most  effectual  remedy  was  to  call  up  the  oldest  man 
visible,  to  offer  him  a  cigarette,  to  calm  him  down,  and 
then  to  give  the  Interpreter  some  money  and  to  send  off 
the  pair  of  them.  Once  this  system  failed  In  a  flea- 
infested  hole  on  the  west  coast,  where  the  village  Inn 
had  no  stables,  and  I  really  thought  there  were  no  fowls ; 
of  a  sudden,  as  though  satirising  the  expression  of  regret 
of  several  villagers,  two  fowls  fluttered  over  a  wall  into 
the  road.  The  meeting  broke  up  in  confusion.  The 
grooms,  the  servants  and  the  Interpreter  at  once  tackled 
the  mob,  laying  about  them  with  their  whips ;  little  dam- 
age was  done,  but  considerable  commotion  ensued,  and 
stables,  fowls  and  eggs  were  at  once  forthcoming  and  as 
promptly  paid  for.  In  regard  to  payments  made  to  the 
villagers.  It  is  as  well  to  make  certain  that  the  grooms 
pay  for  the  horses'  accommodation;  If  they  can  avoid 
it  they  will  do  so,  and  a  memory  of  this  lingering  in  the 
mind  of  the  Inn-keeper,  makes  him  shut  his  doors  when 
the  next  foreigner  is  passing.  But,  In  a  general  way,Jf 
everything  Is  paid  for,  anything  Is  procurable — even 
crockery  and  charcoal  stoves,  at  a  pinch,  when  the  diffi- 
culties of  the  precipitous  track  have  played  unusual 
havoc  in  the  china  basket. 

In  the  routine  of  the  march.  It  is  pleasant  to  camp 
beyond  the  village  for  the  noonday  halt ;  near  the  river, 
if  the  weather  permits  bathing.  The  food  can  be  pre- 
pared in  the  sunlight  under  some  trees.  This  picnic  halt 
gives  an  agreeable  change  from  the  native  inn,  over 
which  the  missionaries  wail  perpetually;  it  is,  indeed, 

275 


KOREA 

always  to  be  avoided.  I  was  several  times  in  Korean 
inns,  driven  In  by  some  sudden  and  temporary  down- 
pour, which  cut  off  my  retreat.  The  evening  camp  made 
me  Independent  of  them  In  general;  every  evening  the 
Interpreter  found  the  cleanest-looking  private  house  and 
bargained  with  Its  proprietor  to  let  two  rooms  for  the 
time  of  my  visit.  The  arrangement  was  never  refused, 
nor  was  I  ever  subjected  to  rudeness  or  to  any  Insult 
upon  these  occasions.  The  family  would  freely  help 
my  servants,  and  when  the  grooms  had  removed  them- 
selves and  their  horses  to  the  Inn  stables,  no  one  was  dis- 
turbed. The  boy  prepared  breakfast  In  the  morning. 
The  space  allotted  to  us  was  always  ample  for  my  camp- 
bed,  kit,  and  mosquito  curtains.  It  opened,  as  a  rule, 
upon  the  courtyard,  around  which  the  house  Is  built. 
There  was  plenty  of  air,  as  one  side  was  open;  the  floor- 
ing was  of  thick  timbers,  raised  from  the  ground.  If 
the  weather  proved  Inclement  the  place  afforded  warmth 
and  shelter.  Moreover,  this  system  has  much  to  com- 
mend It  on  the  score  of  cleanliness;  the  price  paid  by 
me,  half  a  dollar,  for  the  rooms  was  of  course  usually 
double  the  price  which  had  been  arranged.  Occasion- 
ally while  travelling,  when  these  private  houses  were  un- 
procurable, other  makeshifts  had  to  be  adopted,  an  open 
encampment  or  the  official  quarters  at  the  Yamen.  This 
latter  place  was  inconvenient,  and  we  always  accepted 
anything  of  a  private  nature  rather  than  venture  Into 
the  Yamen  or  the  inn.  Many  nights  were  passed  upon 
the  verandahs  of  these  houses,  with  a  private  room  lead- 

276 


FOOD   AND   ACCOMMODATION 

Ing  from  It  at  the  back,  in  case  it  became  necessary. 
Our  beds  were  pitched  as  much  in  the  open  as  possible, 
the  silent  beauty  of  the  night  hours  quite  justifying  the 
measure.  Many  nights  I  undressed  upon  the  edge  of 
the  street,  my  camp-bed  pitched  beneath  a  verandah,  a 
peaceful  and  inoffensive  crowd  of  Koreans  smoking  and 
watching  me  a  few  feet  off.  I  would  get  into  my  sleep- 
ing-suit, roll  into  my  camp-bed,  and  close  the  mosquito 
curtains,  upon  which  the  crowd  would  quietly  disperse. 
As  publicity  was  unavoidable,  and  it  was  useless  to  ob- 
ject, it  was  easier  to  accept  the  situation  than  to  struggle 
with  the  curiosity  of  the  spectators. 

It  is  always  well  to  dispense  with  everything  which 
can  be  discarded.  A  camp-bed  well  off  the  ground  and 
more  strongly  made  than  those  of  the  usual  American 
pattern,  is  essential ;  a  field  kit  canvas  valise,  the  Wolse- 
ley  pattern,  containing  a  pocket  at  either  end,  with  a 
cork  mattress,  is  also  indispensable.  It  will  carry  all 
personal  effects.  Flannel  shirts,  towels,  socks  and  the 
like,  including  a  book  or  two,  writing  materials,  mack- 
intosh sheets,  mosquito  curtains,  and  insect-powder  are 
all  which  need  to  be  included.  Fresh  mint  is  useful 
against  fleas  If  thrown  about  near  the  sleeping  things  In 
little  heaps.  It  is  an  invaluable  remedy  and  usually 
effective,  though,  by  the  way,  I  found  the  fleas  and  bugs 
In  the  houses  of  New  York  and  Philadelphia  infinitely 
less  amenable  to  such  treatment  than  any  I  came  across 
in  Korea  during  my  stay  there.  A  camera,  a  colonial 
saddle,  Zeiss  glasses,  a  shot-gun,  a  sporting-rlfle,  a  re- 

277 


KOREA 

volver,  a  hunting-knife,  and  a  large  vulcanite  water- 
bottle  are  necessary.  A  supply  of  sparklets  Is  to  be  rec- 
ommended; these  articles,  with  a  coll  of  rope,  balls  of 
string,  jam,  cocoa,  tea,  sugar,  alcohol,  potted  meats, 
tinned  fruits,  and  biscuits,  enamelled  ware  eating  and 
cooking  things,  with  a  few  toilet  accessories,  completed 
my  materials.  It  Is  good  policy  to  take  a  small  hamper 
of  wines  and  luxuries,  in  case  the  opportunity  occurs  of 
extending  hospitality  to  an  official  or  some  other  trav- 
elling European.  They  are  very  serviceable  among 
the  officials.  Native  tobacco  is  light,  mild,  and  easily 
smokable.  I  carried  a  pouch  of  it  invariably.  Canvas 
valises  of  the  service  type  are  better  than  any  kind  of  a 
box.  With  this  arrangement  there  are  no  corners  or 
sharp  edges  to  hurt  the  horses,  and  as  a  load,  too,  they 
do  not  make  such  hard,  unyielding  objects  against  the 
side  of  a  horse  as  any  leather,  tin,  or  wooden  contri- 
vance. My  bed  and  field-kit  just  balanced  upon  one 
pony ;  my  provisions  and  servants'  baggage  fitted  an- 
other. There  was  one  spare  pony.  The  interpreter 
and  myself  rode;  the  servants  were  mounted  upon  the 
baggage  animals,  the  coolie  walked. 

At  one  time,  when  I  was  travelling  with  a  German 
friend,  our  retinue  was  exceedingly  numerous;  we  each 
had  our  personal  establishment  and  a  combined  staff  for 
the  expedition.  This,  however,  is  not  quite  the  way  to 
rough  it.  It  was,  moreover,  comparatively  expensive 
and  a  bother,  inasmuch  that  so  large  a  cavalcade  re- 
quired no  little  managing.    There^  was,  however,  some- 

278 


UP   THE    HAN    RIVER 

thing  luxurious  and  enjoyable  In  that  procession  across 
Korea,  although  It  Is  not  the  plan  to  be  adopted  In  gen- 
eral. 

There  was  little  further  to  be  accomplished  by  me  In 
Korea.  My  journey  overland  had  taken  me  from 
Fusan  to  Seoul  and  again  from  Seoul  to  Won-san,  my 
examination  of  the  Inland  and  coast  centres  of  mining 
and  Industry  was  concluded:  the  beauties  of  the  Dia- 
mond Mountains,  with  their  Buddhist  monasteries,  had 
been  studied.  At  the  end  of  these  labours,  I  was  weary 
and  111  at  ease;  moreover  the  time  was  approaching  when 
my  long  journey  overland  from  Seoul,  the  ancient  capi- 
tal of  Korea,  to  Vladlvostock,  the  seat  of  Russian  au- 
thority upon  the  Pacific  coast,  would  have  to  be  begun. 
The  heat  in  Seoul  had  been  most  oppressive,  when  one 
day  Mr.  Gubbins,the  British  Minister,  suggested  a  short 
spell  of  rest  and  recuperation  upon  an  island  a  few  miles 
up  the  Han  River.  Before  nightfall,  my  staff  and  I 
were  floating,  with  the  turn  of  the  tide,  up  the  estuary 
of  the  river.  Sea  breezes  blew  over  the  mighty  expanse 
of  the  smoothly  gliding  waters,  and  the  burden  of 
weariness  which  had  been  depressing  me,  lightened  under 
the  Influence  of  these  gusty  winds  and  the  freshening 
air  from  the  harbour.  The  change  from  the  hot  and 
stuffy  surroundings  of  the  capital,  where  the  crowds  had 
ceased  to  be  attractive  and  domestic  bothers,  arising 
from  the  preparation  for  my  Vladlvostock  journey,  had 
begun  to  jar  upon  the  nerves,  was  most  entrancing. 
When  the  moon  burst  out  from  behind  a  blackened  can- 

279 


KOREA 

Cpy  of  cloud,  as  we  sailed  easily  against  the  rapid  cur- 
rent of  the  river,  the  rugged  outline  of  the  cliffs  across 
the  waters  proved  the  reality  of  the  transformation. 
During  the  small  hours  of  the  night  I  lay  awake,  play- 
ing with  the  bubbles  and  froth  of  the  water  In  sweet 
contentment.  I  resolved  to  dally  for  a  few  days  upon 
the  small  islands  in  the  stream,  halting  In  the  heat  of  the 
sun  and  moving  forward  at  night  or  In  the  twilight, 
when  sea-birds  could  be  killed  for  the  pot  and  fish 
dragged  from  their  cool  depths  for  the  breakfast  dish. 
How  delightful  were  the  plunges  into  that  swift  cur- 
rent; and  how  often  they  were  taken  In  the  cool  shade 
of  some  Island  backwater!  Care  and  anxiety  dropped 
away  In  those  days  of  Idle  frolic,  giving  the  mind,  worn 
by  the  strain  of  many  months  of  travel  and  the  hardship 
of  two  campaigns,  opportunity  to  recover  Its  vigour. 
Then  came  some  pleasant  weeks  in  the  Island  monastery, 
where,  from  a  Buddhist  haunt,  perched  high  upon  a 
lofty  peak  on  Kang-wha,  mile  upon  mile  of  smiling 
scenery  lay  open  to  Inspection  from  my  chamber 
window. 

The  salt  water  estuary  of  the  Han  Is  tempestuous  and 
deep,  given  over  to  much  shipping  and  small  craft.  The 
river  itself  does  not  begin  for  twenty  miles  above  the 
tide-water  mouth,  the  intervening  stretch  of  water  be- 
longing more  correctly  to  the  sea.  Above  Chemulpo, 
where  the  full  force  of  the  Han  current  Is  hardly  felt, 
the  velocity  of  the  stream  Is  quite  five  knots  an  hour. 
Where  the  breadth  of  the  river  narrows  the  rapidity  of 

280 


UP   THE    HAN    RIVER 

the  flow  Increases.  At  a  point,  where  the  river  makes 
a  sudden  sweep  round  some  overhanging  bluffs,  which 
confront  each  other  from  opposite  banks,  the  heavy  vol- 
ume of  water  thus  tumbling  down  becomes  a  swirling, 
boisterous  mill-race,  as  It  twists  and  foams  through  Its 
tortuous  channels  Into  another  tide-swollen  reach.  The 
place  of  meeting  between  the  sea  and  the  river  current 
shows  Itself  In  a  line  of  choppy  water,  neither  rough  nor 
smooth.  The  water  Is  always  bubbling  and  always 
breaking  at  this  point,  in  a  manner  poetically  suggestive 
of  the  spirits  of  the  restless  deep.  The  Han  River  gives 
access  to  Seoul.  In  the  days  before  the  railway,  the 
choice  of  route  to  the  capital  lay  between  spending  a 
night  aground  upon  one  of  the  many  shifting  sand-banks 
In  the  river  or  the  risks  of  a  belated  journey  overland, 
with  pack  ponies  and  the  delights  of  a  sand-bath  In  the 
Little  Sahara.  There  were  many  who  found  the  "  all 
land  "  way  preferable  to  the  *'  land  and  water  system," 
to  which  many  groundings  and  much  wading  reduced 
the  experiment  of  travelling  by  junk  or  steam-launch  In 
those  days.  Now,  however,  the  Iron  horse  rules  the 
road. 


281 


CHAPTER   XXIV 

Kang-wha,  brief  history  of  the  island — A  monastic  retreat,  an 
ideal  rest — Nocturnal  visitors — Midnight  masses — Re- 
turn to  the  capital — Preparations  for  a  great  journey — 
Riots  and  confusion 

KANG-WHA,  the  island  to  which  I  was  sailing  in 
these  easy  stages,  lies  in  the  north-east  quarter 
of  the  gulf,  formed  by  the  right  angle  which  the  coast 
makes  before  taking  that  northerly  sweep  which  carries 
it,  with  a  curve,  to  the  mouth  of  the  Yalu  River.  On 
the  south  and  south-west,  Kang-wha  is  exposed  to  the 
open  sea ;  on  the  north,  the  island  is  separated  from  the 
mainland  by  the  Han  estuary ;  and  on  the  east  a  narrow 
strait,  scarce  two  hundred  yards  wide,  through  which 
boats,  journeying  from  Chemulpo  to  Seoul,  must  travel 
severs  the  island  from  the  mainland. 

The  geographical  features  of  the  island  Include  four 
clearly-defined  ranges  of  mountains,  with  peaks  attain- 
ing to  an  altitude  of  some  two  thousand  feet.  Broad 
and  fertile  valleys,  running  from  east  to  west,  separate 
these  ranges,  the  agricultural  Industry  of  the  population 
being  conducted  In  their  open  spaces.  The  villages  and 
farmsteads,  in  which  the  farming  population  dwell,  are 
folded  away  in  little  hollows  along  the  sides  of  the  val- 

282 


KANG-WHA 

leys,  securing  shelter  and  protection  from  the  severity  of 
the  winter.  Many  hundred  acres  of  the  flats,  which 
form  the  approaches  to  these  valleys  from  the  coast,  have 
been  reclaimed  from  the  sea  during  the  last  two  cen- 
turies, the  erection  of  sea  dykes  of  considerable  length 
and  Immense  strength  having  proceeded  apace.  But  for 
these  heavy  earthworks,  what  Is  now  a  flourishing  agri- 
cultural area  would  be  nothing  but  a  sea  of  mud  washed 
by  every  spring  tide.  The  continuous  encroachment  of 
the  sea  threatened  at  one  time  the  extinction  of  all  the 
low-lying  level  land. 

Kang-wha,  with  its  curious  monasteries  and  high  pro- 
tecting battlements,  now  reduced  to  glcturesque  decay, 
played  a  prominent  part  in  the  early  history  of  Korea. 
It  has  repelled  invasion,  and  afforded  sanctuary  to  the 
Royal  Family  and  the  Government  In  days  of  trouble; 
the  boldness  of  Its  position  has  made  It  the  first  outpost 
to  be  attacked  and  the  most  Important  to  be  defended. 
Twice  in  the  thirteenth  century  the  capital  was  removed 
to  Kang-wha  under  stress  of  foreign  invasion.  With 
the  exception  of  the  terrible  Japanese  Invasion  under 
HIdeyoshi  in  1592,  and  the  Chino-Japanese  War  in 
1894-95,  Kang-wha  has  felt  the  full  force  of  nearly 
every  foreign  expedition  which  has  disturbed  the  peace 
of  the  country  during  the  past  eight  centuries,  notably 
those  of  the  Mongols  in  the  thirteenth,  of  the  Manchus 
in  the  seventeenth  centuries,  of  the  French  in  1866,  and 
of  the  Americans  in  1871.  Furthermore,  Kang-wha 
was  the  scene  of  the  affair  between  Koreans  and  Japa- 

283 


KOREA 

nese  which  led  to  the  conclusion  of  the  first  treaty  be- 
tween Korea  and  Japan  In  1876.  The  actual  signing  of 
that  Instrument,  the  first  of  the  series  which  has  thrown 
open  Korea  to  the  world,  took  place  in  Kang-wha  city. 
The  predecessor  of  the  present  Emperor  of  Korea  was 
born  in  Kang-wha  in  1831,  living  in  retirement  In  the 
capital  city  until  he  was  called  to  the  throne  In  1849. 
Upon  occasion,  Kang-wha  has  been  deemed  a  suitable 
place  of  exile  for  dethroned  monarchs,  inconvenient 
scions  of  Royalty,  and  disgraced  Ministers. 

At  two  points  In  the  narrow  strait  upon  the  east  are 
ferries  to  carry  passengers  to  the  mainland.  Kang-song, 
where  the  stream  makes  an  abrupt  turn  between  low 
cliffs,  is  the  scene  of  the  American  expedition  of  1871 ; 
near  the  southern  entrance  of  the  strait,  and  close  to  the 
ferry,  are  the  forts  which  repelled  the  American  storm- 
Ing-party.  The  famous  rapids  and  whirlpool  of  Son- 
dol-mok,  whose  evil  reputation  is  the  terror  of  the  coast, 
are  close  by.  There  are  numerous  forts  dotted  round 
the  coast  of  the  Island,  recalling  the  Martello  towers  of 
Great  Britain.  They  were  not  all  erected  at  one  time; 
the  majority  of  them  date  only  from  the  close  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  having  been  raised  In  the  early 
years  of  Suk-chong.  The  rampart  upon  the  eastern 
shore,  which  frowns  down  upon  the  straits  and  river 
below,  was  erected  In  1253.  Ko-chong,  of  the  Ko-ryo 
dynasty,  fled  before  the  Mongol  Invasion  of  that  date, 
removing  his  Court  and  capital  from  Song-do  to  Kang- 
wha.  Kak-kot-chI,  where  there  Is  a  second  ferry.  Is  a  few 

284 


KANG-WHA 

miles  beyond  Kang-song.  At  the  point  where  the  ferry 
plies,  the  hill  of  Mun-su  rises  twelve  hundred  feet  high 
from  the  water's  edge.  From  a  junk  a  short  distance 
from  the  shore  It  appears  to  block  the  straits,  so  closely 
do  the  cliffs  of  Kang-wha  gather  to  the  mainland.  This 
little  place  became  the  headquarters  of  the  French  expe- 
ditionary force  In  1866. 

The  capital  of  the  Island,  Kang-wha  city.  Is  a  battle- 
mented  citadel,  with  walls  fifteen  It  In  circumference, 
and  four  pavilioned  city  gates.  It  Is  a  garrison  town, 
beautiful  In  Its  combination  of  green  vistas  and  ancient, 
crumbling  walls.  The  Chlno-Japanese  War,  so  fatal 
to  many  of  the  old  Institutions  of  Korea,  diminished 
the  ancient  glory  of  Kang-wha.  For  two  hundred  and 
sixty  years  prior  to  this  campaign,  Kang-wha  ranked 
with  Song-do,  Kang-chyu,  Syu-won  and  Chyon-chyon  as 
one  of  the  0-to,  or  Five  Citadels,  upon  which  the  safety 
of  the  Empire  depended.  It  controlled  a  garrison  of 
ten  thousand  troops;  the  various  officials  numbered 
nearly  one  thousand.  The  change  In  the  destiny  of  the 
kingdom  brought  a  turn  In  the  fortunes  of  the  Island, 
and  It  Is  now  administered  by  an  official  of  little  Impor- 
tance. It  Is  still,  however,  the  seat  of  government  for  a 
widely  scattered  region,  and  the  centre  of  trade  and 
Industry  for  some  thirty  thousand  people.  Agriculture 
IS  the  staple  industry;  stone-quarrying  and  mat-making 
are  other  means  by  which  the  population  exists.  At  the 
water's-side  there  are  salt-pans;  a  certain  amount  of 
fishing,  a  little  pottery-making,  smelting,  the  weaving  of 

285 


KOREA 

coarse  linen,  to  which  work  the  wives  of  the  farmers 
devote  themselves,  complete  the  occupation  of  the  in- 
habitants. One  pursuit,  horse-breeding,  for  which 
Kang-wha  was  once  famous,  is  now  completely  aban- 
doned. 

There  are  nine  monasteries  under  the  government  of 
the  island.  Seven  are  situated  upon  the  island;  the  chief 
of  these  is  the  fortified  monastery  of  Chung-deung,  the 
Temple  of  Histories,  the  sometime  pillar  of  defence  of 
the  Kingdom,  thirty  It  south  of  Kang-wha,  famous  as 
the  scene  of  the  reverse  suffered  by  the  French  troops  in 
1866.  Mun-su-sa,  standing  upon  the  mainland  oppo- 
site. Is  included  in  this  little  colony  of  Buddhistic  re- 
treats, as  IS  another,  upon  the  island  of  Ma-eum-to, 
called  Po-mun-sa,  famous  for  the  wlldness  of  its  scenery 
and  for  a  natural  rock  temple  In  the  side  of  the  hill 
upon  which  It  stands.  The  monks  of  Chung-deung-sa 
enjoyed  military  rank  until  quite  recently.  They  were 
regarded  as  soldiers  In  times  of  national  distress;  they 
received  Government  allowances,  food,  and  arms.  In 
order  to  maintain  them  in  a  state  of  efficiency.  Bud- 
dhism has  lost  much  of  its  hold  upon  the  islanders, 
although  it  existed  before  1266.  There  is  a  branch  of 
the  English  Mission  (Seoul)  In  Kang-wha,  under  the 
administration  of  the  Rev.  Mark  Napier  Trollope, 
whose  notes  upon  this  Island  were  presented  In  a  paper 
which  their  author  read  before  the  local  branch  of 
the  Royal  Asiatic  Society  during  my  stay  In  Korea. 
They  materially  assisted  me  to  collect  the  Interesting 

286 


A   MONASTIC    RETREAT 

data  from  which  these  few  paragraphs  have  been  com- 
piled. 

I  stayed  five  weeks  In  Kang-wha  monastery,  pre- 
paring the  skeleton  of  this  present  volume.  Having 
gone  there  for  a  week  at  the  ouslde,  I  found  the  quiet 
and  solitude  of  the  spot  such  a  sanctuary  from  trouble, 
and  such  a  panacea  to  the  nerves,  that  I  was  loath  to 
abandon  It.  After  a  few  days  In  the  cramped  confine- 
ment of  the  native  junk  which  had  conveyed  me  from 
Chemulpo,  delaying  much  en  route.  It  was  pleasant  to 
stretch  my  limbs  again  upon  the  shore.  Landing  one 
morning  at  daybreak,  I  fell  upon  the  unsuspecting 
guardian  of  the  English  Mission,  Father  Trollope,  and 
moved  off  at  a  later  hour  In  the  day  across  country  to  the 
monastery.  The  monks  were  not  at  all  disturbed  by 
my  intrusion.  Although  strangers  are  not  such  frequent 
visitors  to  this  monastery  as  to  those  in  the  Diamond 
Mountains,  their  presence  excites  no  comment,  and  they 
are  allowed  to  go  their  way  with  that  kindly  indifference 
to  their  existence  which  Is,  under  the  circumstances,  the 
height  of  courtesy.  The  Chief  Abbot  was  Informed  of 
my  arrival,  and,  after  a  little  explanation,  ordered  a 
very  airy  building  to  be  prepared  for  my  reception.  It 
was  well  raised  from  the  ground,  and,  situated  just 
below  the  main  courtyard,  afforded  a  magnificent  view 
of  the  entire  domain.  In  the  distance  I  could  see  the 
farm-lands  of  the  Island  and  the  sparkle  of  the  sunlight 
upon  the  water;  more  within  the  picture,  and  quite  near 
to  my  new  home,  were  two  wells,  a  running  stream,  and 

287 


KOREA 

a  stretch  of  mountain  slopes,  cool,  fragrant,  and  over- 
grown with  scrub  and  bush.  Temples  revealed  them- 
selves In  a  sea  of  foliage,  through  which  the  drifting 
breezes  played  soft  music.  At  one  end  of  this  Hall  of 
Entertainment  were  placed  the  cooking  and  eating  para- 
phernalia, in  the  middle  my  camp-bed,  and,  overlook- 
ing the  landscape,  an  Improvised  writing  table  with  my 
books  and  papers.  There  was  no  element  of  unrest  in 
the  setting  of  my  little  camp.  Every  morning  the  Chief 
Abbot  welcomed  me  to  the  glories  of  another  day;  in 
the  evening  we,  through  the  medium  of  my  interpreter, 
talked  together  upon  an  amazing  variety  of  subjects — 
Buddha  and  Christ,  this  world  and  the  next,  Paris,  Lon- 
don, America.  Duties  In  the  monastery  would  prevent 
these  new  friends  from  coming  on  certain  nights;  but 
they  always  forewarned  me  of  their  absence,  never  dis- 
turbing me  at  my  work,  never  taking  me  by  surprise. 
The  sense  of  consideration  and  courtesy  which  their 
kindly  hospitality  displayed  was  manifested  in  countless 
ways.  The  small  return  which  it  was  possible  to  make 
quite  shamed  me  before  them.  Frequently,  at  midnight, 
when  my  lights  were  burning,  the  Abbot  would  walk 
across  from  his  own  apartments  and  force  me  to  bed 
with  many  smiles  and  much  gentle  pressure,  covering  my 
manuscript  with  his  hands  and  nodding  towards  my 
camp-bed.  There  was  no  screen  to  the  front  of  my 
building,  so  it  was  always  possible  for  them  to  observe 
the  stranger  within  their  gates.  This  inspection  was 
most  quietly  carried  on;  indeed.  If  I  turned  to  the  open 

288 


A   MONASTIC    RETREAT 

courtyard,  those  who,  perhaps,  had  been  noting  the 
structure  of  my  camp-bed,  or  the  contents  of  my  vahse, 
hanging  to  air  upon  a  stout  rope,  flitted  away  like 
ghosts.  I  was  left,  as  I  wished  ,in  peaceful  contempla- 
tion of  my  work  and  the  splendour  of  the  scenery 
around  me. 

Catering  arrangements  were  quite  simple  during  my 
stay  in  this  monastery.  Rice  and  eggs  and  fowls  were 
procurable  from  the  villages  beyond  the  walls  of  the 
temple,  and  rice-flour  or  vegetables  could  be  procured 
from  the  butterman  of  the  monastery.  It  was  my  plan 
to  take  breakfast  about  ten  o'clock  in  the  morning,  and 
to  dine  about  six  o'clock  in  the  evening.  Between  these 
hours  was  my  time  for  writing,  and  I  was  always  fully 
occupied.  Before  breakfast  I  walked  abroad  or  pre- 
pared my  notes  of  the  work  for  the  day;  after  dinner  I 
received  my  callers,  arranging  anything  of  interest  in  my 
notes  when  they  were  gone.  Usually  I  witnessed  the 
mdinight  gathering  of  the  monks,  listening,  with  pleas- 
ure, to  the  booming  of  the  great  bell  of  the  monastery 
and  the  accompanying  peals  of  smaller  bells  of  less 
melodious  volume  and  much  shriller  tone.  The  vibra- 
tion in  the  air,  as  these  wonderful  noises  broke  upon  it, 
filled  the  high  woods  with  melody  and  the  deep  valleys 
with  haunted  strains  as  of  spirit-music.  After  the  mid- 
night mass,  when  the  echoes  had  died  away,  the  delight 
of  the  moment  was  supreme.  In  utter  weariness  and 
most  absolute  contentment  I  stretched  myself  to  slumber 
beneath  the  protecting  draperies  of  the  mosquito-cur- 

289 


KOREA 

tains,  within  the  vaulted  spaciousness  of  my  Hall  of 
Entertainment. 

Visitors  to  Chung-deung-sa  were  frequent  during  my 
stay,  some  attracted  by  the  reported  presence  of  a  for- 
eigner, others  by  their  very  genuine  wish  to  sacrifice  to 
the  All-Blessed-One.  Two  Korean  ladies  of  position 
arrived  in  the  course  of  one  morning  to  plead  for  the 
Intercession  of  Buddha  In  their  burden  of  domestic  mis- 
ery and  unhapplness.  Presenting  the  Korean  equivalent 
for  ten  shillings  to  the  funds  of  the  monastery,  they 
arranged  with  the  Abbot  for  the  celebration  of  a  noc- 
turnal mass  in  the  Temple  of  the  Great  Heroes.  Dur- 
ing the  afternoon  the  priests  prepared  the  temple  In 
which  the  celebration  was  to  be  held;  elaborate  screens 
of  Korean  pictorial  design  were  carried  Into  the  temple 
from  the  cells  of  the  Chief  Abbot;  large  quantities  of 
the  finest  rice  were  boiled.  High,  conical  piles  of  sweet- 
meats and  sacrificial  cakes  were  placed  In  large  copper 
dishes  before  the  main  altar,  where  the  three  figures  of 
Buddha  sat  in  their  usual  attitude  of  divine  meditation. 
In  front  of  each  figure  stood  a  carved,  gilded  tablet, 
twelve  Inches  high,  exactly  opposite  to  which  the  food 
was  placed,  with  bowls  of  burning  Incense  at  Intervals 
between  the  dishes.  Lighted  candles.  In  long  sticks, 
were  placed  at  either  end  of  the  altar;  above  It,  In  the 
centre,  serving  as  a  lamp  and  hanging  from  a  long 
gilded  chain,  was  suspended  a  bowl  of  white  jade.  In 
which  lay  the  smoking  end  of  a  lighted  wick.  Numer- 
ous side  altars  were  similarly  decorated.    The  furniture 

290 


MIDNIGHT    MASSES 

of  the  temple  comprised  a  big  drum,  a  heavy,  cracked 
bell,  cast  in  the  thirteenth  century,  and  a  pair  of  cym- 
bals. There  were  five  monks ;  the  two  women  sat,  mute, 
upon  the  left  of  the  Abbot.  The  four  priests  arranged 
themselves  upon  the  right — one  to  the  bell,  one  to  the 
drum,  and  two  to  the  pair  of  cymbals,  in  the  playing  of 
which  they  took  turns.  Upon  each  side  of  the  temple, 
recessed  right  and  left  of  the  main  altar,  were  mural 
representations  of  the  Ten  Judges.  Save  for  the  altar 
illuminations,  the  effect  of  which  was  to  render  the  Inte- 
rior even  gloomier  and  more  eerie  than  usual,  the  build- 
ing was  In  darkness. 

The  service  began  with  the  customary  calling  for 
Buddha.  The  Abbot  tapped  upon  a  bamboo  cane; 
every  one  leant  forward,  their  faces  pressed  down,  and 
their  foreheads  resting  upon  the  floor.  The  palms  of 
their  hands  were  extended  beyond  their  heads  in  an 
attitude  of  reverence  and  humility.  This  prostration 
was  accompanied  by  the  Intoning  of  a  Thibetan  chant, 
to  the  accompaniment  of  a  brass  gong,  struck  with  a 
horn  handle  by  the  Abbot  himself.  Further  prostrations 
followed  upon  the  part  of  the  entire  assemblage,  the 
women  joining  In  this  part  of  the  service.  For  the  most 
part  they  squatted  silently  and  reverently  In  their  corner 
of  the  temple.  As  the  different  services  concluded  the 
Abbot  shifted  the  offerings  before  the  main  altar  to 
their  appointed  stations  before  the  smaller  shrines,  when 
the  prayers  proceeded  afresh.  Protracted  overtures 
were  made  to  the  picture  of  the  Ten  Judges,  before 

291 


KOREA 

which  the  service  apparently  became  fully  choral.  One 
priest  danced  amazing  and  grotesque  steps,  strangely 
reminiscent  of  a  Kaffir  war-dance,  the  sole  of  one  foot 
striking  the  floor  to  the  accompaniment  of  a  clash  of 
cymbals  as  the  other  leapt  into  the  air.  Another  priest 
played  upon  the  cracked  bell,  and  a  third  kept  up  a  dull, 
monotonous  thumping  on  the  drum.  The  sole  idea  of 
the  priests,  as  conveyed  to  my  mind  by  their  celebration, 
seemed  to  be  the  breaking  up  of  the  solemn  silence  of  the 
night  by  the  most  amazing  medley  of  noises.  At  inter- 
vals, in  the  course  of  the  unmusical  colloquy  between 
the  drums,  the  cymbals,  and  the  big  bell,  the  monks 
chanted  their  dirges,  which  were,  in  turn,  punctuated  by 
the  dislocated  tapping  of  the  Abbot's  brass  bell  and 
wooden  knocker. 

It  was  deafening,  the  most  penetrating  discord  of 
which  I  have  ever  been  the  unfortunate  auditor.  With 
the  conclusion  of  the  exercises  upon  the  cymbals,  which 
were  beaten  together  in  a  wide,  circular  sweep  of  the 
arms,  then  tossed  aloft,  caught,  and  clanged  together 
after  the  fashion  of  the  South  African  native  with  his 
spear  and  shield,  the  performing  priest  returned  to  the 
companion  who  relieved  him.  His  more  Immediate  ac- 
tivities over,  he  stood  aside  laughing  and  talking  with 
his  colleagues  In  a  voice  which  quite  drowned  the  chants 
In  which  his  companions  were  engaged.  Then,  panting 
with  his  late  exertions,  he  proceeded  to  fan  himself  with 
the  most  perfect  unconcern,  finally  examining  the  hem 
of  his  jacket  for  lice;  his  search  repaying  him,  he  re- 

292 


MIDNIGHT    MASSES 

turned  to  his  seat  upon  the  floor  and  lifted  up  his  voice 
with  the  others.     After  the  sacrifices  and  prayers  had 
been  offered  before  the  main  altar  and  those  upon  the 
right  and  left,  extra  tables  of  fruit,  apples,  dates,  nuts, 
cakes  and  incense,  together  with  the  previous  dishes  of 
rice,  cakes,  incense  and  bread,  were  spread  before  a 
small  shrine  placed  in  front  of  the  screen.     Rice  was 
piled  into  a  bowl,   and,  while  the  other  monks  were 
laughing  and  chattering  among  themselves  in  the  temple 
itself  during  the  progress  of  the  sacrifice,  the  two  women 
approached  the  shrine  and  made  obeisance  three  times, 
then  touching  each  dish  with  their  fingers,  bowed  again 
and  retired  to  their  corner.     At  the  same  time  three 
priests,  breaking  from  the  group  that  were  talking  by 
the  doors  of  the  building,  sat  down  in  the  centre  of  the 
temple  upon  their  praying-mats,  seven  or  eight  feet  from 
the  shrine.    While  one  chanted  Korean  prayers  from  a 
roll    of    paper,    another    struck    and    rang    the    brass 
bell   repeatedly,    and  the   third   hammered   the    gong. 
Throughout  this  part  of  the  service  the  others  chatted 
volubly,  until  they,  too,  joined  in  a  chorus  and  paean  of 
thanksgiving,  breaking  off  from  that  to  chant,  in  low, 
suppressed  tones,  a  not  unimpressive  litany. 

Repetitions  of  the  services  I  have  described  continued 
all  night.  Sometimes  there  was  more  noise,  sometimes 
less,  occasionally  there  was  none,  the  tired,  quavering 
voices  of  the  sleepy  priests  tremulously  chanting  the 
requisite  number  of  litanies.  The  women,  who  sat  with 
wide-opened  eyes,  watched  with  interest  and  were  satis- 

293 


KOREA 

fied.  The  priests  seemed  bored.  Personally  I  was  tired, 
dazed  and  stunned  by  the  uproar.  During  the  progress 
of  this  strange  service,  I  was  struck  by  the  utter  absence 
of  that  devotional  fervour  which  was  so  characteristic 
of  the  priests  in  the  principal  monasteries  of  the  Dia- 
mond Mountains. 

The  ceremony  presently  shifted  from  the  Temple  of 
the  Great  Heroes  to  the  spacious  courtyard  in  front  of 
it.  Here,  when  numerous  fires  had  been  lighted,  the 
Abbot  and  three  priests,  together  with  the  two  Korean 
women,  moved  in  procession.  Their  march  was  accom- 
panied by  the  striking  of  many  gongs  and  bells.  The 
monks  offered  prayers  round  heaps  of  pine  branches, 
which  had  been  thrown  together  and  lighted  at  the  dif- 
ferent spots.  Chants  and  prayers  were  repeated,  and 
the  same  clashing  of  instruments  went  on  as  before.  It 
was  not  until  a  heavy  rain  descended  that  the  worship- 
pers returned  to  the  seclusion  of  the  temple.  I  felt, 
somehow,  quite  grateful  to  that  shower  of  rain.  In 
the  morning,  my  interpreter  told  me  that  this  progress 
in  the  courtyard  formed  a  part  of  services  which  accom- 
panied the  offering  of  special  prayers  for  rain.  It  would 
be  a  curious  coincidence  if  this  were  so.  Next  day,  at 
the  hour  of  my  breakfast,  there  was  some  desire  to  con- 
tinue the  celebration.  My  head  was  still  aching  with 
the  jarring  discord  of  the  bells,  gongs,  and  cymbals  of 
the  previous  entertainment,  and  at  the  sight  of  the 
preparations  my  appetite  vanished.  Breakfast  became 
impossible;  I  relinquished  it  to  pray  for  peace.     Hap- 

294 


RETURN    TO    SEOUL 

plly  this  blessing  was  granted  me ;  and  It  was  decided  to 
hold  no  further  service — the  rain,  I  presume,  having 
appeared — and  to  devour  the  sacrifices.  All  that  day 
the  monks  and  their  two  guests  ate  the  offerings.  It 
was  therefore  a  day  of  undisturbed  quiet,  and  as  my 
prayer  also  had  been  granted,  each  was  satisfied,  and 
we  were  a  happy  family. 

My  little  holiday  passed  all  too  quickly.  One  day  I 
found  myself  preparing  very  sorrowfully  to  return  to 
Seoul.  This  accomplished,  the  news  of  my  intended 
journey  was  quickly  bruited  abroad  by  my  servants. 
During  these  days  curio-dealers  crowded  the  compound 
of  the  Station  Hotel,  where,  made  very  comfortable  by 
the  kindly  forethought  of  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Emberley,  I 
was  still  living.  There  Is  little  enough  to  buy  in  Seoul : 
quaint,  brass  cooking-utensils;  iron.  Inlaid  with  silver; 
tobacco  boxes,  jade  cups,  fans,  screens,  and  scrolls.  My 
purchases  were  few,  the  native  furniture,  massive 
presses,  and  cabinets  faced  with  copper  plates,  and  small 
tea-tables,  attracting  me  more  than  anything  else.  The 
Emperor  had  already  sent  a  present  of  silk  and  fans  to 
my  hotel,  and,  with  these  few  remaining  articles,  my 
stock  of  Korean  relics  was  completed.  The  dealers  were 
Importunate,  and  crowded  Into  the  private  apartments 
of  the  hotel  like  bleating  sheep  into  a  pen.  Remon- 
strances were  in  vain,  and  I  found  the  specific  cure  for 
their  pestiferous  attentions  to  be  administered  best  in 
the  shape  of  a  little  vigourous  kicking.  They  took  the 
cuffing  with  much  good  humour,   and  retired  to  the 

295 


KOREA 

courtyard,  where,  at  intervals  In  the  day,  a  plaintive 
voice  would  be  heard  calling  upon  His  Highness  to  in- 
spect the  treasures  of  his  slave.  His  Highness,  how- 
ever, had  concluded  his  Inspection. 

The  atmosphere  In  these  hot  days  in  Seoul  was  very 
bad;  the  air  was  heavy  with  malodorous  vapour;  the 
days  were  muggy  and  the  nights  damp.  The  steaming 
heat  of  the  capital  emphasised  the  wisdom  of  an  imme- 
diate departure,  and  I  hastened  my  exodus,  touched  up 
with  a  little  ague  and  a  troublesome  throat.  The  end- 
less business  of  obtaining  servants,  guides,  and  horses 
was  repeated,  until  at  last  the  day  of  my  removal  was 
arranged  and  the  hour  of  actual  departure  fixed.  The 
prospect  was  alluring — a  journey  from  Seoul  to  Vlad- 
ivostock,  through  a  wild  and  desolate  region,  nearly 
eight  hundred  miles  in  length,  lay  before  me.  Much  of 
it  was  unexplored.  It  was  the  chance  of  a  lifetime,  and 
in  thus  embarking  upon  It,  I  was  very  happy.  My  last 
farewells  were  said;  my  last  calls  had  been  paid — the 
kindly  hospitality  of  Seoul  is  not  forgotten.  The  day 
had  come  at  last,  the  horses  were  pawing  in  the  court- 
yard. My  effects,  my  guns,  and  camp-bed,  my  tent  and 
stores,  were  packed  and  roped.  The  horses  had  been 
loaded;  the  hotel  account  had  been  settled,  when  my 
interpreter  quietly  told  me  that  my  servants  had  struck 
for  ten  dollars  Mexican — one  sovereign — monthly  in- 
crease in  the  wages  of  each.  Mr.  Emberley  stood  out 
against  the  transaction;  I  offered  to  compound  with 
half;  they  were  obdurate.     It  seemed  to  me  that  a 

296 


RIOTS   AND    CONFUSION 

crisis  was  impending.  I  was  too  tired  and  too  cross  to 
remonstrate.  I  raised  my  offer  to  eight  dollars;  it  was 
refused — the  servants  were  dismissed.  Uproar  broke 
out  in  the  courtyard,  which  Mr.  Emberley  pacified  by 
inducing  the  boys  to  accept  my  last  offer — a  rise  of  eight 
dollars  Mexican.  My  head-servant,  the  brother  of  my 
interpreter,  repudiated  the  arrangement,  but  the  signifi- 
cance of  this  increase  had  assumed  great  importance. 
It  was  necessary  to  be  firm.  I  think  now  that  it  was 
unwise  to  have  entertained  any  change  at  all  in  the 
standard  of  payment.  Upon  the  question  of  the  addi- 
tional two  dollars  I  stood  firm ;  nothing  more  would  be 
given.  The  interpreter  approached  me  to  intimate  that 
if  his  brother  did  not  go  he  also  would  stay  behind.  I 
looked  at  him  for  a  moment,  at  last  understanding  the 
plot,  and  struck  him.  He  ran  into  the  courtyard  and 
yelled  that  he  was  dead — that  he  had  been  murdered. 
The  grooms  in  charge  of  the  horses  gathered  round  him 
with  loud  cries  of  sympathy.  Mr.  Emberley  called 
them  to  him  and  explained  the  position  of  affairs.  I 
strode  into  the  compound.  The  head  groom  came  up 
to  me,  demanding  an  increase  of  thirty  dollars,  Korean 
currency,  upon  the  terms  which  he  had  already  ac- 
cepted; he  wanted,  further,  three-quarters  of  the  con- 
tract price  to  be  paid  in  advance;  one  quarter  was  the 
original  stipulation.  I  refused  the  thirty  dollars,  and 
thrashed  him  with  my  whip. 

The  end  of  my  journey  for  the  moment  had  come, 
with  a  vengeance.    The  head  groom  stormed  and  cursed 

297 


KOREA 

and  ran  raving  in  and  out  of  the  crowd.  He  then  came 
for  me  with  a  huge  boulder,  and,  as  I  let  out  upon  his 
temple,  the  riot  began.  My  baggage  was  thrown  off  the 
horses  and  stones  flew  through  the  air.  I  hit  and 
slashed  at  my  assailants  and  for  a  few  minutes  became 
the  centre  of  a  very  nasty  situation.  Servants  and 
grooms,  my  interpreter,  and  a  few  of  the  spectators  went 
at  it  keenly  while  the  fight  continued.  In  the  end,  Mr. 
Emberley  cleared  his  courtyard  and  recovered  my  kit; 
but  I  was  cut  a  little  upon  the  head  and  my  right  hand 
showed  a  compound  fracture — native  heads  are  bad 
things  to  hammer.  Postponement  was  now  more  than 
ever  essential;  my  fears  about  my  health  were  realised. 
By  nightfall  upon  the  day  of  this  outbreak  signs  of  sick- 
ness had  developed;  the  pain  had  increased  in  my  hand 
and  arm ;  my  head  was  aching ;  my  throat  was  inflamed. 
I  was  advised  to  leave  at  once  for  Japan ;  upon  the  next 
day  I  sailed,  proposing  to  go  to  Yokohama  and  thence 
to  Vladivostock,  starting  the  expedition  from  the  Rus- 
sian fortress.  However,  by  the  time  my  steamer  arrived 
at  Japan,  I  was  in  the  clutch  of  enteric  fever.  Further 
travel  was  out  of  the  question,  and  when  they  moved  me 
from  an  hotel  in  Yokohama  to  a  cabin  upon  a  Japanese 
steamer,  which  was  to  carry  me  to  England,  in  my  mind 
I  had  bidden  farewell  to  the  countries  of  this  world,  for 
the  doctor  told  me  that  I  was  dying. 


298 


APPENDIX    I 

SCHEDULE  OF  TRAIN   SERVICE 

Leave  Day  Arrive 

Port  Arthur  j'^^^^^^y  I         Moscow 

Dalny  ( Thursday  3  '^  "^^^'^  ^  ^°''''''  ^'^  minutes 

Through  trains  from  Moscow  arrive  at  Dalny  and  Port 
Arthur  on  Wednesdays  and  Saturdays. 

The  train  comprises  first-  and  second-class  cars  and 
dining-car. 

The  cost  of  the  journey  is  almost  prohibitive  if  compared 
with  ocean  steamer  charges. 

The  train  service  is  very  unreliable  and  subject  to  many 
interruptions. 

The  steamers  of  the  Chinese  Eastern  Railway  Company 
are  scheduled  to  make  the  connection  with  Korea  upon 
arrival  of  the  train.  Time  required,  from  twenty-four  to 
forty-eight  hours. 

The  estimate  of  the  length  of  time  occupied  by  the  journey 
between  Korea  and  Japan  upon  the  completion  of  the  Seoul- 
Fusan  Railway  is  forty-four  hours. 

Chemulpo  or  Seoul  to  Fusan lo  hours 

Fusan  to  Moji  by  sea 4 

Moji  to  Kobe ^5 

Kobe  to  Tokio ^5 

299 


KOREA 


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300 


APPENDIX 


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302 


APPENDIX 
APPENDIX    III 

RETURN  OF  PRINCIPAL  ARTICLES  OF  EXPORT  TO  FOREIGN 
COUNTRIES  FROM  THE  OPEN  PORTS  OF  KOREA  DURING 
THE  YEARS  1901-1902. 


1902 

190 

t 

Average, 

Articles 

Quantity 

Value 

Quantity 

Value 

Five  Years, 
1898-1902 

Barley  ...           

Lbs. 

Head 
Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Pieces 
Lbs. 

LbZ 

359,600 

107,887,600 

312,666 

6,552 

264,400 

4,909,600 

85,201 

3,333 

3,981,600 

213,333 

67,866 

173,066 

126,401,066 

2,596,666 

29,660 

421,466 

11,751.333 

£ 

395 

186,293 

6,517 

19,383 

4,041 

8,418 

122,304 

213 

5,409 

70,815 

309 

^P 
3,164 

359,804 
9,354 
2,239 
3,015 
4,737 
18,022 
20,727 

100,133 

114,273,600 

447,466 

13,611 

300,533 

7,645,066 

24,575 

16 

3,500,400 

439,866 

99,866 

133,200 

184,566,266 

3,027,600 

21.077 

306,266 

2,787,866 

£ 

III 

194,115 

6,820 

17,288 

6,448 

14,814 

25,670 

121 

7,205 

66,396 

1,308 
2,575 
427,459 
9,118 
1,392 
2,185 

22,858 
3,682 

26,822 

1,165 

Beans  all  kinds     .  .           .... 

185,839 

Copper                                  .    . 

-t 

Fish,  dried,  salt  and  manure.  . 
Ginseng,  red 

11,782 

77,386t 

white 

109 

Gold  ore 

-t 

Hides        . .                          

53,652 

Millet 

1,539 

Nutgalls 

1,866 

Paper 

3,161 

Rice 

314,081 

Seaweed  . 

8,744 

Skins  of  all  kinds 

2,039 

Tallow 

1,055 

Whaleflesh  and  blubber 

Wheat 

11,410 
9,523 

Other  exports,  i.       ..... 

44,641 

Total 

— 

846,034 

— 

836  824 

746,705 

*  Large  rise  in  price  owing  to  increased  demand  at  Vladivostock  and  elsewhere. 

t  No  returns  for  1898. 

t  To  China  by  Korean  Government. 


303 


KOREA 
APPENDIX    IV 

RETURN    OF    PRINCIPAL    ARTICLES    OF    IMPORTS    TO  FOR- 
EIGN  COUNTRIES  DURING  THE  YEARS   1901-1902. 


Articles 


Cotton  goods — 

Shirtings,  grey  and  white — 

British 

Japanese 

T-cloths 

Drills- 
British  and  American 

Japanese 

Turkey-red  cloths — 

British 

Japanese 

Lawns  and  muslins 

Lenos 

Sheetings — 

British  and  American 

Japanese 

Cotton  reps 

Japanese  piece-goods 

Piece-goods,  non-Japanese. .. . 

Yarn- 
British  and  Indian 

Japanese 

Chinese 

Other  cottons 

Total 

Woollen  goods 

Miscellaneous  piece-goods... 

Metals 

Sundries — 

Arms,  accoutrements,  and  am- 
munition  

Bags  and  ropes  for  packing.  . . 

Clothing  and  haberdashery. .  . 

Cotton — 

Raw 

Wadding 

Dyes 

Flour 

Grain  and  pulse 

Grass-cloth 

Machinery 

Matches 

Mining  suppUes 

Kerosene  oil — 

American 

Japanese 

Paper 

Provisions 

Railway  plant  and  material. . . 

Rice 

Sak^  and  samshu 

Salt 

Silk  piece-goods 

Sugar 

Tobacco,  cigars,  and  cigarettes 

Other  sundries , 

Total 

Grand  total 


Pieces 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Gross 

Gallons 
Lbs. 

Lbl 
Lbs. 
Lbs. 


Quantity         Value 


389,730 
18,926 
18,771 

20,045 
2,032 

6,857 

9,763 

100,513 

33,602 

134,282 
173,907 

21,094 
658,462 

39,356 

"1,333 
4,154,533 


239,066 

652,666 

259,333 

1,937,066 

3,998,266 


576,629 


3,461,980 

760 

878,666 


11,447,466 
17.491,733 
2,501,600 


172,515 
3,934 
4,169 

9,274 
1,036 

1,873 

1,539 

10,135 

8,797 

57,342 
72,098 

9,461 
65,407 

3,054 

3,923 
98,933 

23,282 


546,772 


7846 


1701 


59,266 


9,556 
31,408 
21,918 

3,806 

12,340 

8,361 

7,433 

9,337 

57,310 

14,608 

iC,iio 

46,659 

77.988 
17 

7,654 
19,154 
46,112 
40,675 
15,924 

7,998 
86,444 
15,039 
20,273 
[88,642 


Quantity 


Value 


402,156 
19,236 
29,798 

34,970 
919 

6,815 
10,274 
95,460 
38,897 

189,554 
171,235 

28,412 
909,811 

39,699 

120,933 

5,028,800 

4 


447,866 

688,533 

327,466 

1 ,899 ,066 

3,110,133 


562,338 


2,463,631 

19,260 

901,733 


10,963,200 

28,845,200 

1,992,933 


766,766 


1,382,351 


176,892 
3,933 
6,782 

16,250 
188 

1,928 

1,904 

9,750 

10,296 

80,177 
72,303 
14,598 
88,069 
3,517 

4,193 

119,781 

12 

33,235 


643,808 


16,6] 


1645 


74.156 


38,606 
28,464 
17,916 

7,883 
14,650 
13,791 
7,860 
6,348 
53,979 
12,546 

17,7  ;7 
39,267 

62,833 

530 

8,033 

19,359 

27,963 

40,924 

14,228 

13,879 

125,381 

12,588 

17,425 

161,838 


764,038 


,500,265 


*  Highest  on  record.     Large  direct  import  in  sailing-vessels  from  America. 

t  Large  quantity  imported  from  Saigon  by  Government  to  relieve  national  distress. 


APPENDIX 
APPENDIX    V 

COAST  TRADE   BETWEEN   TREATY  PORTS   IN   NATIVE 
PRODUCE    (NET) 


Port 

1902 

1 901 

Imports 

Exports 

Imports 

Exports 

Chemulpo 

Yen 
2,517,819 

443,235 

514,936 

83,805 

105,577 
73,691 
10,896 

94,997 

Yen 

91,443 
587,513 
573,025 
803,828 

817,359 
527,187 

191,547 
84,892 

Yen 
1,991,757 
455,256 
306,909 

34,662 
104,926 

57,122 

15,173 
78,439 

Yen 

98,364 
445,963 
626,965 
708,561 
456,632 
472,850 
110,968 

74,829 

Fusan 

Won-san 

Chin-am-po 

Mok  -po 

Kun-san 

Ma-sam-po 

Syong-chin 

Total 

3,844,956 

3,676,794 

3,044,244 

2,995,132 

"     coast  trade  * 

7,521,750 

6,039,376 

*  Increasing  annually  with  greater  transport  facilities. 


APPENDIX    VI 

CUSTOMS    REVENUE 

Year 

Amount 

Exchange 

Currency 

Sterling 

1902     

Yen 
1,204,776 
1,325,414 
1,097,095 
902,955 
1,000,451 

£ 
122,783 

135,303 

109,710 

90,296 

101,087 

s.      d. 
2      o\ 
2      0\ 
2      0 

IQOI 

1900      „ 

1800                           

2       0 

1808 

2      0\ 

Average,  five  years 

— 

111,836 

—• 

305 


KOREA 
APPENDIX    VII 

GOLD   EXPORT   TO    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES 


Year 


Amount 


Currency 


Sterling 


Exchange 


1902 
I9OI 
1900 
1899 
1898 


Yen 
5,064,106 

4,993,351 
3,633,050 
2,933,382 
2,375,725 


£ 
516,961 
509,738 
363,305 
293,338 
240,047 


oh 

oh 

o 

o 

oi 


From 

Value 

... 

1902 

1901 

1900 

Chemultx) 

Yen 

2,538,101 

104,915 

1,361,580 

1,053,800 

5,710 

Yen 

2,556,095 
122,968 

1,668,245 
646,043 

Yen 

1,027,66 1; 

Fusan 

121,809 

Won-san 

i,42q,t:76 

Chin-am-po 

158,000 

Mok-po 

5,064,106 

4,993,351 

3,633,050 

To 

Value 

1902 

1901 

1900 

China 

Yen 
59,805 
5,004,300 

Yen 
136,150 
4,857,201 

Yen 
1:67,670 

Tapan  

3,065,380 

Total 

5,064,106 

4,993,351 

3,633,050 

Exchange  sterling,  25.  o^d. — 2s.  o^d. — 2s.  od. 
306 


APPENDIX 

APPENDIX    VIII 

TABLE 

OF    MINERALS 

Gold. 

Iron  Ores,  Magnetite 

Ham-kyong. 

AND    LiMONITE. 

Pyong-an. 

Ham-kyong. 

Hwang-hai. 

Hwang-hai. 

Kyong-keui. 

Kyong-keui. 

Kang-won. 

Chyung-chyong. 

Chyung-chyong. 

Chyol-la. 

Chyol-la. 

Kyong-syang. 

Kyong-syang. 

Silver. 

Mercury. 

Ham-kyong. 

Kyong-syang. 
Ham-kyong. 

Silver  and  Lead. 

Ham-kyong. 

Mangan. 

Kang-won. 

Kyong-syang. 

Kyong-keui. 

Chyung-chyong. 

Kyong-syang. 

Coal. 

Chyol-la. 

Pyong-an. 

Pyong-an. 

Kyong-syang. 
Ham-kyong. 

Tin. 

Kyong-keui. 

Chyol-la. 

Kang-won. 

The  preceding  minerals  are  yielded  by  the  different  provinces. 


307 


INDEX 


A  Tai-cho,  174 

Agriculture  Department,  expen- 
diture of,  93,  94 

Allen,  Dr.,   151 

America : 

Interests   in   Korea,    150-152 
Trade  with  Korea,  133,  139, 
141,   142 

Am-nok  River,  see  Yalu 

An-ak,  161 

An-man-chai  Pass,  233 

An-tung,  28,  193,  207M 

An-yang,  154 

A-o-ya  Pass,  161 

Banks  : 

Dai  Ichi  Ginko,  27,  98-100 
Russo-Chinese,  27,  194 
Bauer,  Herr,  219 
Belgian  interests  in  Korea,  164- 

165 
Bojisco,  203 
Bourdaret,  M.,  159 
Boxer  disturbances,  132,  140 
Broughton,  Captain  W.  R.,  6,  169 
Broughton  Bay,  6,  169-170 
Brown,  J.  McLeavy : 

Sketch  of,  74-80;  Work  of, 
20,    33,    150;    Yi   Yong-ik, 
Relations  with,  55-56,  81 
Bruce,  Admiral,  80 
Briinner,  M.,  202 
Buddhism,  231,  235-239,  261,  286, 
290-295 

Cazalis,  M.,  84-85 
Chang-dan,   161 
Chang-ot,  the,  36,  42 
Chemulpo,  11,  28,  30,  32,  99,  135, 

163,    182,  262;   Description  of, 

15-22 
Chi-fu,  32,  135 
Chik-san,   157 


China : 

Conservatism  of,  11-12,  no 
Korea :       Early       Relations 
with,   10,   122-123;   Settle- 
ments in,   16^17,   103-105; 
Trade  with,   121,  135 
Chin-am-po,  description  of,   181, 

184-187,  188 
Chin-eui,    154 
Ching-kai-wan       (Shin-hai,      or 

Chin-hai),  200 
Chino-Japanese    War,    reference 

to,  10,  29,  31,  131 
Chin-san,  155 
Cho  Pyong-sik,  99 
Cho  Sung-hyup,  203 
Cho-san,  204 
Christianity,  259-267 
Cliun-kok,  118 
Chyang-pyong,   155 
Chyok-syong,  description  of,  213 
Chyol-la,  119,  154,  178,  182 
Chyon-eui,  154 
Chyung-chyong,    5,    7,    119,    154, 

158,   182 
Chyu-pung  Pass,  155 
Clemencet,  M.  E.,  31 
Communications        Department, 

expenditure  of,  93 
Companies : 

American,  18,  150 
English,  146-147 
French,  83,   158 
Russian,  192,  201  seq 
Concubinage,    laws    relating    to, 

109-110 
Confucianism,  237-239,  261 
Cooke,  Miss,  150,  164 
Corfe,  Bishop,  150,  262 
Corruption,     Government,     100- 

102 
Cotton  trade,  132-133 
Currency,  debased,  86-87,  95-98 


309 


KOREA 


Customs,  Imperial  Korean  Mari- 
time : 
Establishment  of,  19-20 
Hypothecation  of,  55-56,  82- 

87 
Mr.  McLeavy  Brown,  Chief 

Commissioner  of,  74-83 
Revenue  from,  307 

Dagelet,  8 

Dalny,   18 

de  Lapeyriere,  M.,  159 

de  Plancy,  Colin,  83,  88,  158,  183 

de  Speyer,  M.,  88 

Dress,  Seoul,  in,  35-38 

Drought,  effects  of,  251-255 

Dun  River,  169 

Durock,  8 

Education    Department,    expen- 
diture of,  93,  94 
Education   in   Korea,   26-27,   59. 

103-107 
Emberley,    Mr.,    148,    295,    296, 

297,  298 
Emperor  of  Korea,  the : 
Character  of,  57-64 
Mr.    McLeavy   Brown,    atti- 
tude towards,  81-82 
Power  of,  54,  iio-iii 
Religion  of,  239 
England,  see  Great  Britain 
Eun-san,  186,  217 

Farming,  methods  of,  115-117 
Finance     Department,     expendi- 
ture of,  93,  94 
Food-stuffs  in  Korea,  character 

of,   118-121 
Foreign     Department,     expendi- 
ture of,  92,  94 
Forest  Concession,  the,  202  seq. 
France : 

Interests  of,  in  Korea,  158- 

163 
Policy  of,  in  Korea,  56,  85- 
86,  88-89,   183-184 
Fusan,  17,  30,  32,  99,  135;  Early 
Japanese  incursions  into,   123- 
126;  Description  of,  175-177 
Fusan,  Old,  156,  175-176 

Germany: 

Interests  of,  in  Korea,  163 
Trade  with  Korea,  141,  142 


Gisaing,  48  seq 

Gold,  export  returns,  308 

Mining,  217-221 
Government  corruption,  100-102 
Great  Britain : 

Interests  of,  in  Korea,  143- 

150 
Policy  of,  in  Korea,  85,  89- 

90,  183 
Settlement  in  Korea,  17 
Trade  in  the   East,   lack  of 
enterprise,   135-142 
Gubbins,  J.  G.,  80,  81,  84,  89 

Hai-chu,  161 

Hai-yong  River,  226 

Hall,  Basil,  6 

Ham-kyong,    10,    121,    174,    175, 

189 
Han  River,  20,  160,  161,  279-281 
Han-chu,  160 
Han-ju,  161 
Ha-ram,  118 
Hart,  Sir  Robert,  20,  74 
Hayashi,  Mr.,  205 
Hermit  Kingdom,  the,  39,  41 
Hideyoshi,  45,  283 
Home  Department,  expenditure, 

93,  94 
Hulbert,  Prof.  H.  B.,  103 
Hwang-hai,  119 
Hyon-pung,  155 

Im-chin  River,   160,   161 
Im-chin  River,  160,  161 
Im-myong,  190 
Industries : 

Domestic,   112  seq,   116-117, 

179-180 
Fishing  and  fish-drying,  246- 

248 
Mining,  217-221 
Salt  making  from  sea-water,  248 
Irrigation,   116 
Island,  Round,  20 
Roze,  20 

Japan  : 

Dai  Ichi  Ginko  instituted, 
98-100 

Early  relations  between  Ko- 
rea and,  I,  4,  45,  122-128 

Foreign  goods  counterfeited 
by,  165-167 


310 


INDEX 


Japan  (continued)  : 

Interests  of,  in  Korea,  152— 
158,  170-172 

Korean  currency,  action  re- 
garding, 97,  98 

Policy  of,  in  Korea,  128-13 1 

Russia,  attitude  towards, 
194-201 

Settlements  in  Korea,  16- 
17,  130-131,  157-158 

Trade  with  Korea,  132-133, 
135,  139,  141 
Jordan,  Mr.,  148,  183 

Kak-kot-chi,  284 

Kak-pi  Pass,  228 

Kal-kan-i,  228 

Kang,  Lady,  63 

Kang-kyoi,  217 

Kang-kyong,  154 

Kang-song,  284 

Kang-wha,  282-295 

Kang-won,  9,  119,  121,  174,  175 

Kap-san,  217 

Keu-chai,  198 

Keum  River,  154,   182 

Keum-kang-san,  227,  229,  233 

Keum-san,  155 

Ki-ja,  118 

Kim  Yueng-chun,  63 

Knochenhauer,  217 

Kobe,  32 

Ko-chong,  284 

Kong-chyu,   154 

Konishi,  125 

Korea : 

Character  of  people,  112— 
115;  Court  of,  54  seq,  65- 
73 ;  Customs  and  dress  of 
the  people,  35-39;  Danc- 
ing, 50-53 ;  Development 
and  progress  of,  10-15 ; 
Disease  in,  257-258;  Early 
explorers  of,  2-7;  Filth  of 
people,  249—250 ;  Food, 
120-121 ;  Geography  of,  i— 
10,  13-14,  138;  Govern- 
ment, lo-ii,  90,  99,  109- 
1 1 1 ;  Hunting  in,  223-226 ; 
Language  of,  103-106 ; 
Origin  of  people,  39—40; 
Postal  system,  30-32 ;  Sla- 
very in,  45-47 ;  Supersti- 
tion, 8-10,  250,  254-255; 
Telegraphic      communica- 


Korea  (continued)  : 

tion,  25,  28-30 ;  Trade  and 
shipping,    19-22,    132-142, 
302-306;      Travelling     in, 
268-280 
American  interests  in,  150- 

152 
Belgian  interests  in,  164-165 
British  interests  in,  144-150; 
Policy  in,  85,  89,  183;  Set- 
tlements in,  18 
China    and,    early    relations 
between,  10,  123-124;  In- 
fluence of,  in,  40;  Settle- 
ments   in,    16-18;    Trade 
between,  135 
French  influence  in,  55 ;  in- 
terests in,  158-163;  Policy 
in,  85-86,  89,  183-184 
German  interests  in,  163 
Japanese,      incursions      and 
early    relations    with,    45, 
122-128 ;     Influence,    12^ 
131 ;  Interests  in,  152-158, 
171-172;    Policy    in,    128- 
129;    Settlements    in,    16- 
17,.  130-131,  156-157 
Russian  influence  in,  55 ;  In- 
terests  in,    169,    170,    192- 
207 ;  Policy  in,  85,  89,  183 
Ko-ryo,  174 
Ko-yang,   161 
Kumungo,  the,  106 
Kun-san,     description    of,     181, 

188-189 
Kuroda,  125 
Kwi-po,  156 
Kyong-keui,  119,  154 
Kyong-syang,  119,  120,  154 
Kyo-wha,   161 

La  Perouse,  7 

Law    Department,    expenditure, 

93,  95 
Law,  marriage  and  divorce,  of, 

108-109 
Penal,  107-108 
Lazareli,  7 
Lefevre,  M.  G.,  159 
Li  Hung  Chang,  201 
Liao-tung  Gulf,   123 

Peninsula,  195 
Lyne  Sound,   178 


Ma-eum-to  Island,  286 


311 


KOREA 


Manchuria,  Russian  policy  tow- 
ards, 195,  196,  205 

Man-sak-dong,  16 

Ma-san-po,  192,  193,  197-201 

Matunine,  M.,  88 

Min  Yeung-ik,  56 

Minerals,    Korean,    13,    162,   187, 
189,  217-220 
Table  of,  309 

Mines,  British,  217 
German,  217  seq 

Mining,  Korean  methods  of, 
219-220 

Missionaries :  American,  264- 
265 ;  Church  of  England,  262- 
263,  286;  French,  259-262 

Mok-po,  32,  99,  154,  262;  De- 
scription of,   177-180 

Monasteries :  Chang-an-sa,  226, 
229-231,  233,  234,  243,  244- 
245  ;  Chung-deung,  286 ;  Kang- 
wha,  286-287,  288-295;  Mun- 
su-sa,  286;  Pyo-un,  229;  Shin- 
ki-sa,  240-242;  Sin-ga,  229; 
Sok-wan,  174;  Yu-chom-sa, 
229,  232-237,  240,  245-246 

Mountains :  Diamond,  9,  168  scq, 
226  seq,  242;  Korean,  descrip- 
tion of,  13-14;  Nam-san.  24; 
Peuk-an,  24;  Superstitions  re- 
garding, 8-10 

Mukden,    193 

Mum-sa-am,  242 

Mun-chyon,    155 

Mun-san-po,  161 

Mun-su,  hill  of,  285 

Nagasaki,  28,  32 
Nageum,  the,   106 
Nak-tong  River,  155 
Nam-pu,  200 
Newchang,   132 
No-dol,  154 

Om,  Lady,  56,  60-64,  81,  239 
On-miin,  104,  105 
On-yang,  154 
Oppert,  7 
O-san-tong,  154 

Paik-tu-san,  13 
Pavloff,  M.,  88,  183,  193,  198 
Pedlar's  Guild,  100 
Pellisier,  8 


Police   Department,   expenditure 

of,  93,  95 
Po-mun-sa,  286 
Ponies,  Korean,  270-272 
Po-pheung,  King,  229 
Po-ri,  120 

Port  Arthur,  8,  33,  169,  170,  197 
Hamilton,  200-201 
Lazareff,  169 
Postal  Union,  30,  31 
Prince  Jerome's  Gulf,  7 
Productions,  farm,  116-121,  138 
Pu-ti-chong  Pass,  233,  234 
Pyok-tong,  204 

Pyong-an,  120,  121,  174,  175,  217 
Pyong-tak,   154 
Pyong-yang,    28,    125,    151,    159, 

161 ;   Description  of,   181,   184, 

187-188 

Quelpart,  2,  7,  119,  265 

Railways  : 

Seoul-Chemulpo,  152,  153, 
154;  Seoul-Fusan,  18,  152- 
157,  176;  Trans-Siberian, 
18,   159,  169 

Rainfall,  255-258 

Revenue,  sources  of,  90-95,  307 

Rice  crop,  importance  of,   149 

Russia : 

Interests  in  Korea,  169,  170, 
192-207 ;  Japan,  attitude 
towards,  194—201 ;  Policy 
in  Korea,  57,  85,  89-90, 
183 ;  Policy  in  Manchuria, 
195,  196 ;  Yong-an-po,  ap- 
propriation of,  201—207 

Ru-yong-san  River,  178 

Ryang-san,   155 

Ryong-san,   155 

Ryon-san,   155 

Sang-no,  the,  45-46 

Schwartz,  8 

Seoul,  17,  98,  99,  135,  262;  De- 
scription of,  23—40 

Shamanism,  237 

Shanghai,  33,  135,   137 

Shan-tung,  17.   123 

Shibusawa,  Baron,  98 

Shimonosaki.   10 

Shipping,  Chemulpo,  19-22 ; 
Scheduled  returns  of,  302-304 

Sho-ho,  see  An-tung 


312 


INDEX 


Shufeldt,  Admiral,  i6 

Si-heung,  154 

Sin-chyon,  161 

Sin-gyo,  155 

Slavery,  Korean,  45-48 

Son-dol-mok  Rapids,  284 

Song-do,  159— 160 

Steamship  Companies :  Nippon 
Yusen  Kaisha,  32,  137;  Osaka 
Shosen  Kaisha,  32,  137 

Suk-chong,  284 

Syok-kyo-chyon,  155 

Syon-chyon-po,  184,   187 

Syong-chik,  246 

Syong-chin,  181 

Syu-won,   154 

Ta-bak  Mountains,  164 

Ta-dong  River,  184,  185 

Tai  Won  Kun,  60 

Tai-hoang-kyo,  154 

Tai-ku,  155 

Taku,  32 

Tan-bal-yang  Pass,  227 

Tap-kok,  118 

Taxation,  90-92 

Teh-chang-chin,  217 

Temples,  Buddhist,  235,  236,  286, 
290-293 

Tiger,  the  Korean,  225 

Tokio,   18 

Tong-ko-kai,  163,  208,  217  seq 

Tong-lai,   155 

Trade : 

Chemulpo,  of,  19-22;  Ex- 
ports and  imports,  value 
of,  21-22 ;  Scheduled  re- 
turn of  articles,  305-306; 
Native  produce,  scheduled 
return  of,  307 

Train  service,  schedule  of,  301 

Trollope,  Rev.  Mark  Napier,  286 

Tsu-shima,  28,  125 

Tumen  River,  202,  206 

Tun-po,  154 


Ul-lyang,  202 

Unkoffsky,  7 

Un-san,  151,  152,  186,  217 

Vladivostock,  32-33,  137,  169, 
170,  193,  197 

Wai-koan,  155 

War  Department,  expenditure 
of,  92,  93,  94 

Washington  Gulf,  178 

Wei-hai-vi^ei,  British  demonstra- 
tion at,  56 

Wha-ding,  250 

Whan-gan,  155 

Wi-ju,  13,  28,  158,  159,  193,  203; 
Description  and  opening  of, 
182-183 

Women,  Korean: 

Character  of,  44;  Condition 
of,  38,  41-53;  Education 
of,  103-107 

Won-san,  30,  32,  135,  137,  138, 
193;  Description  of,  168-175 

Yalu  River,  158,  202,  207W 

Yamen,  112,  114,  248 

Yang  River,  155 

Yang-san,  155 

Yang-tse,  140 

Yang-wha-chin,  161 

Yi-cha-sun,  50 

Yi-yong-ik : 

Character  of,  57;  Customs 
loan,  attitude  regarding, 
83;  Dai  Ichi  Ginko,  oppo- 
sition to,  99-100;  Mr. 
McLeavy  Brown,  relations 
with,  55-56,  81;  Transac- 
tions of,   loi— 102 

Yokohama,  137 

Yong-an-po,  182,  183;  Russian 
appropriation  of,  193,  201-207 

Yong-chyon,  203,  206 

Yong-dong,  155 

Yong-san,  154 

Yong-tong-po,  152,  154 


313 


MAP  OF 

KOREA 

ANGUS  HAMILTON,  1904 


Date  Due 

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IN  U.  S.  A. 

